1 Results

1.1 Carbopol Rheology

Herschel–Bulkley Model of Carbopol

100

80

τ [P a] 60

40

20
0 100 200 300 400 500
γ̇ [s− ]

(a)

2.0
log G0 , G00 [P a]

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

log Deformation [%]

(b)

Figure 1: a) Shows stress vs strain rate of carbopol where the black crosses represent the experi-
mental values and the blue line represents the Hershel-Bulkley Model fit. b) Shows the value of G’
and G” as a function of the deformation of the fluid. The red crosses represent G’ and the blue
crosses represent G”.

From 1a we can etxract the values of the yield stress, the consistency index and the flow index
of carbopol. The values extracted are
Name & Symbol Value Units
Yield Stress τ0 24 Pa
Consistency Index K 4.23 Pa·sn
Flow Index n 0.49 -
From Fig.1b we can see that after 10% deformation, signals the end of the linear elastic regime.

1.2 Linear Regime of Single Bubble Oscillations

We looked at the oscillations for various bubbles from sizes ranging from 100 µm to 220 µm. We
confirm that they are linear in nature by fitting the oscillations to a sine wave. In doing so we can
extract the oscillation amplitudes which range from 0.26% to 0.34% of the equilibrium radius of
the bubble. We note that these oscillation amplitudes agree with Fig.1b as below 10% deformation
corresponds to the linear elastic regime. The bubbles remain spherical and no shape oscillations
are seen.

1
 Single Bubble Oscillations

0.0002115 0.000160

0.000158
Radius [m]
0.0002110
0.000156

0.0002105 0.000154

0.000152

0.000150
0.000167
Radius [m]

0.000148 0.000166

0.000165
0.000146
0.000164

0 100 200 0 100 200

Number of Cycles Number of Cycles

Figure 2

1.3 Resonance Curve

Resonance Curve for a Single Bubble

0.08

0.07
Oscillation Amplitude [%]

0.06

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

0.00008 0.00010 0.00012 0.00014 0.00016 0.00018

Radius [m]

Figure 3

p
ρ0 R02
ζ= p (1)
4π π 2 (f02 − f 2 ) + β 2 f 2
2(3κ−1)Γ
3κp0 + R0 + 4G
f02 = (2)
4π 2 ρR02

2
 We measure the resonance curve of bubbles in the linear regime. The graph shows a good agree-
ment between the experimental oscillation amplitudes measured at a constant pressure amplitude,
which are represented as black crosses in Fig.3, and the model predicted by Eq.1 and Eq.2, whose
fit is given by the red line in Fig.3. We can then extract, from the graph, the values of of the
pressure amplitude p and the damping parameter β. We retrieve p = 3.2 kPa and β = 6415.4.
Since we conducted this experiment at a constant pressure amplitude of 45.76 mV, we can say that
3.3 kPa ⇔ 45.76 mV.

1.4 Bubble Pairs

1.4.1 Secondary Bjerknes Forces

0.00027
0.000290

0.00026
Distance between Bubbles (m)

Distance between Bubbles (m)

0.000288

0.00025
0.000286

0.00024
0.000284

0.00023
0.000282

0.00022
0.000280

0.00021
0.000278

0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
Time (s) Time (s)

(a) (b)

Figure 4: Plots of the distance between the bubbles as a function of time

Plotted in Fig.4 is the distance between two different bubble pairs as a function of time. We
have defined the distance between bubble pairs to be the distance between their centres. Fig.4a
demonstrates an attractive force between a bubble pair, where their initial separation is 2.7 x 10−4
m and their radii are 9.3 x 10−5 m and 9.9 x 10−4 m. Fig.4b indicates a repulsive force between
the bubble pair, where their initial separation is 2.7 x 10−4 m and their radii are 11.5 x 10−5 m
and 8.8 x 10−5 m.

Fig.5 plots the oscillations of two bubbles in different bubble pairs and the secondary Bjerknes
forces as a function of time. The oscillations of the bubbles tell us we are still in the linear regime.
From Fig.5a we see that magnitude of the secondary Bjerknes force is comparable to the obtained
value of the yield stress of carbopol.

3
 ×10−5
0.000120
9.6
0.000118

9.4

Radius [m]
0.000116
Radius [m]

rmax
9.2
rmin
0.000114

9.0 0.000112

rmax
0.000110
8.8 rmin
×10−5
8.95

0.000102 8.90

0.000100 8.85
Radius [m]
Radius [m]

rmax
0.000098 8.80 rmin

0.000096 8.75

0.000094 rmax 8.70

rmin
0.000092
0 −6.8
Bjerknes Forces/area of bubble [Pa]
Bjerknes Forces/area of bubble [Pa]

τ0 = 24
−6.9
−10
−7.0

−20 −7.1

−30 −7.2

−7.3
−40
−7.4

−50
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
Time [s− ] Time [s− ]

(a) (b)

Figure 5: Plotted are the oscillations of two bubbles in different bubble pairs and the secondary
Bjerknes forces as a function of time.