Graphs of Rational Functions

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara

Botswana International University of Science and Technology

maphaneot@biust.ac.bw & kaisarat@biust.ac.bw

September 29, 2023

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 1 / 28

Overview

1 Rational Functions

2 Asymptotes of a rational function

3 Graphing a rational function

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 2 / 28

Rational Function

Recall that a rational function is a function of the form

P(x)
r (x) =
Q(x)

where P and Q are polynomials. We assume that P(x) and Q(x) have no
factor in common.Even though rational functions are constructed from
polynomials, their graphs look quite different from graphs of polynomial
functions.

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 3 / 28

Rational Functions and Asymptotes

Recall, the domain of a rational function consists of all real numbers x

except those for which the denominator is zero.
Therefore, when graphing a rational function, we must pay special
attention to the behaviour of the graph near those x-values for which the
denominator is zero.
Example 1: A Simple Rational Function
1
Graph the rational function f (x) = , and state the domain and range.
x

Solution:
The function f is not defined for x = 0. The following tables show that
when x is close to zero, the value of |f (x)| is large, and the closer x gets
to zero, the larger |f (x)| gets.

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 4 / 28

Cont...

x f (x) x f (x)
-0.1 -10 0.1 10
-0.01 -100 0.01 100
-0.00001 -100,000 0.00001 100,000

Table: x approaches 0− and f (x) Table: x approaches 0+ and f (x)

approaches −∞ approaches +∞

The table on the left shows that as x approaches 0 from left, the values of
y = f (x) decreases without bound. In symbols,
f (x) → −∞ as x → 0− .
Similarly, the table on the right shows that as x approaches 0 from right,
the values of y = f (x) increases without bound. In symbols,
f (x) → ∞ as x → 0+ .

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 5 / 28

Cont...

The following tables show how f (x) changes as |x| becomes large.

x f (x) x f (x)
-10 -0.1 10 0.1
-100 -0.01 100 0.01
-100,000 -0.00001 100,000 0.00001

Table: x approaches −∞ and f (x) Table: x approaches ∞ and f (x)

approaches 0 approaches 0

The tables shows that as |x| becomes large, the values of y = f (x) gets
closer and closer to zero. In symbols,

f (x) → 0 as x → −∞ and f (x) → 0 as x → ∞.

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 6 / 28

 1
The graph of f (x) = x

The function f is defined

for all values of x other
than 0, so the domain is
{x|x ̸= 0}. From the
graph, the range is
{y |y ̸= 0}. The line
x = 0 is called vertical
asymptote and the line
y = 0 is a horizontal
asymptote. A rational
function has vertical
asymptote where the
function is undefined,
that is, where the
denominator is zero.

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 7 / 28

Example

Graphs of rational functions

Graph each rational function, and state the domain and range.
2 3x + 5
(a) r (x) = (b) s(x) = .
x −3 x +2

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 8 / 28

Solution

1
(a) Let f (x) = . Then we can express r in terms of f as follows
x
2  1  1
r (x) = =2 = 2f (x − 3). Since f (x) = .
x −3 x −3 x
Thus, the graph of r is obtained from the graph of f by shifting 3
units to the right and stretching vertically by a factor 2. Hence, r has
a vertical asymptote x = 3 and horizontal asymptote y = 0.

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 9 / 28

Solution cont’d

The function r is defined

for all values of x other
than 3, so the domain is
{x|x ̸= 3}.

From the graph, the

range is {y |y ̸= 0}.

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 10 / 28

Solution cont’d

1
(b) Using long division, we get s(x) = 3 − .Thus we can express s
x +2
in terms of f as follows
1 1
s(x) = 3 − = −f (x + 2) + 3 Since f (x) = .
x +2 x
The graph of s is obtained from the graph of f by shifting 2 units to
the left, reflecting in the x-axis and shifting up 3 units.

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 11 / 28

Solution cont’d

The function s is
defined for all values
of x other than −2,
so the domain is
{x|x ̸= −2}.

From the graph, the

range is {y |y ̸= 3}.

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 12 / 28

Asymptotes of rational functions
2x 2 − 4x + 5
Graph r (x) = , and state the domain and the range.
x 2 − 2x + 1
Vertical Asymptote: First factor the denominator

2x 2 − 4x + 5
r (x) = .
(x − 1)2

The line x = 1 is a vertical asymptote.

Horizontal Asymptote: The horizontal asymptote is the value that y

approaches as x → ±∞. To determine this value, divide both numerator
and denominator by the highest power of x that appear in the expression
(in this case x 2 ):
1 4 5
2x 2 − 4x + 5 x2
2− x + x2
y= · 1
= 2 1
x 2 − 2x + 1 x2
1− x + x2

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 13 / 28

Cont...

The fractional expressions − x4 , 5

x2
, − x2 and 1
x2
all approach 0 as x → ±∞,
thus
2
y= =2
1
is the horizontal asymptote.

Domain and Range: The function r is defined for all values of x other
than 1, so the domain is {x|x ̸= 1}. From the graph, we see that the
range is {y |y > 2}.

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 14 / 28

Cont...

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 15 / 28

Cont...

Finding Asymptotes of rational functions

Let r be the rational function
an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0
r (x) =
bm x m + bm−1 x m−1 + · · · + b1 x + b0

1. The vertical asymptotes of r are the lines x = c, where c is a

zero of the denominator.
2. (a) If n < m, then r has horizontal asymptote
y = 0.
(b) If n = m, then r has horizontal asymptote
an
y= .
bm
(c) If n > m, then r has no horizontal asymptote.

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 16 / 28

Cont...

Exercise-Home work
Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the following functions
3x 2 − 2x − 1 2x 2 + 7x − 4
(a) r (x) = 2 (b) r (x) = 2
2x + 3x − 2 x +x −2

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 17 / 28

Sketching graphs of rational functions

1. Factor. Factor the numerator and denominator.

2. Intercepts. Find the x-intercepts by determining the zeros
of the numerator and y -intercept for the value of the
function at x = 0.
3. Vertical Asymptote. Find the vertical asymptotes by
determining the zeros of the denominator, and check if
y → ∞ or y → −∞ on each side of each vertical asymptotes
by using test values.
4. Horizontal Asymptote. Find the horizontal asymptote (if
any), using the procedure described on above slide on
Finding Asymptotes of rational functions.
5. Sketch the graph. Graph the information provided by the
first four steps.

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 18 / 28

Graphing a Rational Function

Example
x2 − 4
Graph the function r (x) = , and state the domain and range.
2x 2 + 2x

Solution:
(x − 2)(x + 2)
1. Factor y = .
2x(x + 1)
2. x-intercepts. −2 and 2 from x + 2 = 0 and x − 2 = 0.
3. y -intercept. None, because r (0) is undefined.
4. Vertical asymptotes. x = 0 and x = −1, from the zeros of
the denominator.

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 19 / 28

Cont...

5. Behavior near vertical asymptote(s):

As x → −1− −1+ 0− 0+
(x−2)(x+2) (−)(+) (−)(+) (−)(+) (−)(+)
the sign of y = 2x(x+1) (−)(−) (−)(+) (−)(+) (+)(+)

so y → −∞ ∞ ∞ −∞

6. Horizontal asymptote: y = 12 , because the degree of the

numerator and the denominator are the same and
leading coefficient of numerator 1
= .
leading coefficient of denominator 2

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 20 / 28

Cont...

x2 − 4
7. Graph of y =
2x 2 + 2x

The domain is {x|x ̸= −1, x ̸= 0}. The range is

{y |y < 0.5 or y > 7.5} = (−∞, 0.5) ∪ (7.5, ∞).

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 21 / 28

Common Factors in Numerator and Denominator

If r (x) = p(x)/q(x) such that p and q have a factor in common, then its
graph has a hole.
Example 4
x −3
Graph the function r (x) = .
x 2 − 3x

Solution:
We factor the numerator and denominator
x −3 x −3 1
r (x) = 2
= = , for x ̸= 3.
x − 3x x(x − 3) x

1
Therefore, r has the same graph as y = but with a hole when x is 3.
x
Thus, the hole is at (3, 13 ).

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 22 / 28

Cont...

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 23 / 28

Example 2

Example 2
x2 − 4
Graph the function f (x) = .
x2 − x − 6

Solution:
x2 − 4 (x − 2)(x + 2) x −2
f (x) = 2
= . Thus, f (x) = , x ̸= −2. The
x −x −6 (x + 2)(x − 3) x− 3 
4 4
hole is at x = −2, when y = . Thus, the hole is at −2, . The
5 5
vertical asymptote is x = 3, and horizontal asymptote is y = 1.
The
 x-intercept,
 when y = 0 is (2, 0), and y -intercept, when x = 0 is
2
0, . We can now sketch the graph of f .
3

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 24 / 28

cont...

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 25 / 28

Slant Asymptotes and End behavior

If r (x) = P(x)/Q(x) is a rational function in which the degree of the

numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, then

R(x)
r (x) = ax + b +
Q(x)

where the degree of R is less than the degree of Q and a ̸= 0.This means
that as x → ±∞, R(x)/Q(x) → 0 so for large values of |x| the graph of
y = r (x) approaches the graph of y = ax + b, In this case, we say
y = ax + b is a slant asymptote or an oblique asymptote.
Example 5
x 2 − 4x − 5
Graph the function r (x) = .
x −3

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 26 / 28

Cont...

Solution:
(x + 1)(x − 5)
Factor y =
x −3
x-intercepts: −1 and 5 from x + 1 = 0 and x − 5 = 0.
y -intercept: 35 , because y = r (0).
Vertical Asymptote: x = 3, from the zero of the denominator.
Behavior near vertical asymptote: y → ∞ as x → 3− and y → −∞ as
x → 3+ .
Horizontal Asymptote: None, why?
Slant Asymptote: Using the long division method
8
r (x) = x − 1 − .
x −3
Thus y = x − 1 is an oblique asymptote.

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara (BIUST) Rational Functions September 29, 2023 27 / 28

Cont...

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