ECD Labs 2 Modified 22TL ECD

ROLL NO:
MEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

JAMSHORO
Lab Manual
Department of Telecommunication Engineering

3rd semester 2nd year Batch 22TL
Department of Telecommunication Engineering
Certificate
Certified that Mr. /Miss. __________________________________
S/O/D/O ____________________________of 1st Semester 2nd Year of
Telecommnication Engineering has carried out the necessary practical work for
the subject of AMPLIFIERS & OSCILLATORS as prescribed by the
Mehran University of Engineering & Technology, Jamshoro.
__________________
Engr. khurram Shaikh
COURSE NAME: AMPLIFIERS & OSCILLATORS- ES-205 (PRACTICAL)
LAB
PERFORMANCE DATA
ABILITY TO
SUBJECT ANALYSIS AND CALCULATION OBSERVATION/ PRESENTATION/
INDICATOR CONDUCT SCORE
KNOWLEDGE INTERPRETATI AND CODING RESULTS REPORT
EXPERIMENT
ON
OBJECTIVE NO:
Introduction to Electronic Circuit Design involving Multisim Simulation tool
01
BJT Small Signal Common Emitter Amplifier
02
BJT Small Signal Common Collector Amplifier
03
BJT Small Signal Common Base Amplifier
04
FET Small Signal Common Source Amplifier

05
To observe the Frequency Response of Common Emitter Amplifier
06
To observe the Frequency Response of Common Source Amplifier
07
To observe the Operating Characteristics of a Push pull amplifier
08
To observe the Operating Characteristics of a Tuned Amplifier

09
To Understand the Operation of R-C Coupled Two Stage Bipolar Junction Transistor
10 Amplifiers
To Understand the Operation of Colpitts Oscillator

11
To Understand the Operation of Hartley Oscillator
12
To Understand the Operation of RC-Phase Shift Oscillator
13
To understand the operation of Wien-Bridge oscillators
14
Open Ended Lab

15
TOTAL MARKS OUT OF 5
Mehran University of Engineering & Technology, Jamshoro
Department of Electronic Engineering
ES-205: Amplifiers & Oscillators
Lab Experiment No # 1
Name: __________________________ Roll No: _________________________
Score: _________ Signature of the Lab Tutor______________ Date: __________
LAB
Subject Ability to conduct
PERFORMANCE Observation/results Presentation/ Report Score
knowledge experiment
INDICATOR
TOTAL 2 1 2 5
OBTAINED
Introduction to Electronic Circuit Design involving Multisim Simulation tool

Learning Outcomes:
At the conclusion of this experiment, understudy will be able to
 Introduce the concept of software designing relative to hardware.
 Repeat the given circuits using Multisim.
 Imitate the given electronic circuits with a small change of parameters.
Equipment:
PC with Multisim installed.
Theory:
Electronic Circuit Design:

An each crucial electronic gadget built as an individual unit. Prior to the advancement of
computerized circuits (ICs), every single individual transistor, diodes, resistors, capacitors, and
inductors were discrete in nature. Any circuit or a framework can deliver the favored yield
dependent on its input.
The procedure of circuit design can cover frameworks going from complex electronic frameworks
right down to the individual transistors inside an incorporated circuit. For basic circuits, the
structure procedure should frequently be possible by one individual without requiring an arranged
or organized plan procedure and the planner ought to have the option to anticipate the voltage and
current at each node in the circuit.
Simulation Software & Breadboard:

So as to briefly develop a circuit without harming the segments used to manufacture it, we should
have a type of a stage that will both hold the segments set up and give the required electrical
associations. Though progressively complex methods and gadgets have been created to make the
get together and testing of electronic circuits simpler, but the idea of the breadboard still stays to
accumulate segments on a short term stage.
The electronic circuit test system utilizes numerical models to recreate the conduct of a genuine
electronic circuit. Simulation software considers demonstrating of circuit activity and is a
significant examination device. As a result of the restriction of the breadboard and costly
apparatuses like photomasks for integrated circuits, the majority of the IC configuration depends
on simulation.
Introduction to Multisim:
NI Multisim is an incredible schematic catch and simulation environment that engineers,
understudies, and teachers can use to mimic electronic circuits and model Printed Circuit Boards
(PCBs).
Procedure:
1. How to Start Multisim:
For Windows users the default location can be found by clicking: Go to
Start→Program→Multisim and click on Multisim.
You should see a screen similar to Figure 1 below. This is called as a “Capture and simulate”
environment because you “Capture” your schematic by drawing it in MultiSim and then you
“Simulate” it. In Fig. 1 important toolbars and menu are also labeled.
Open/Create Schematic
A blank schematic Circuit 1 is automatically created. To create a new schematic click on File –
New – Schematic Capture. To save the schematic click on File /Save As. To open an existing file
click on File/ Open in the toolbar.
2. Place Components:
To Place Components click on Place/Components. On the Select Component Window

click on Group to select the components needed for the circuit. Click OK to place the
component on the schematic.
For example to select resistors and the DC source click on Place/ Components. In
Group select Basic scroll down to Resistors and select the value of the resistor needed
to construct the circuit, let’s say select 1k. To place DC source click on Sources in
Group and select DC Source. As shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3 respectively.
Figure 2: Select Resistor Figure 3: Select DC voltage
Figure 4: DC Source & Resistors
3. Rotate Components:
To rotate the components right click on the Resistor to flip

the component on 90 Clockwise (Ctrl +R) and 90 Counter
Clockwise (Ctrl+Shift+R).
Figure 5: Rotate Components
4. Place Wire/Connect Components:
To connect resistors, click on Place/Wire drag and place the wire. Components can also be
connected by clicking the mouse over the terminal edge of one component and dragging to the
edge of another component. See Figure 6 for reference.
Figure 6: Place/ Wire
5. Change Component Values:
To change component values double click

on the component this brings up a window
that display the properties of the
component. See Figure 7 for reference.
Change R1 from 1k Ohm to 10 Ohms, R2
to 20 Ohms, R3 to 30 Ohms, and R4 to 40
Ohms. Also change the DV source from 0
V to 20 V.
Figure 7: Change Component Values
6. Grounding:
All circuits must be grounded before the circuit can be simulated. Click on the Ground in the
toolbar to ground the circuit. If the circuit is not grounded Multisim will not run the simulation.
Figure 8: Grounding
7. Simulation:
To simulate the completed circuit, Click on Simulate/Run or F5. This feature can also be
accessed from the toolbar as shown in the Figure 9 below.
RUN STOP
PAUSE
Figure 9: Simulation
Analyzing Components:
Multisim offers multiple ways to analyze the circuit using virtual instruments. Some of the basic
instruments needed for this lab are described below.
1) Voltmeter:
The Voltmeter offers advantages over the

multimeter for measuring voltage in a circuit.
Always connect the voltmeter in parallel with
the load. The voltmeter can be found in the
measurement toolbar.
Figure 10: Voltmeter
2) Ammeter:
The ammeter offers advantages over the multimeter

for measuring current in a circuit. It takes up less
space in a circuit and you can rotate its terminals to
suit your layout. Always connect the ammeter in
series with the load. To place Ammeter click on
View--- Toolbar --- Select Measurement
Components. See Figure 11 on how to use the
Ammeter.
Figure 11: Ammeter
3) Multimeter:
Use the Multimeter to measure AC or DC voltage

or current, and resistance or decibel loss between
two nodes in a circuit. To use the Multimeter click
on the Multimeter button in the Instruments
toolbar and click to place its icon on the
workspace. Double-click on the icon to open the
instrument face, which is used to enter settings and
view measurements.
Figure 12: Multimeter
To measure Voltage place multimeter in Parallel with the component (Resistor, Voltage etc).
To measure Current place the multimeter in series with the component. Reference the Figure
13 and14.
Figure 13: Measure Voltage Figure 14: Measure Current
Tasks:
 Build a circuit comprising of 3 resistors (of any value) in series and a 15 V battery
with multimeters across each resistor to calculate voltage across each.
 Build another circuit, utilizing two resistors, one of 200Ω resistance & another of
1KΩ resistance, a SPST (Single Pole Single Throw) switch, Direct Current Power
Source, & a Ground connection. Afterwards, attach multimeter to measure the
voltage output near the 1 KΩ resistor.
Name: __________________________ Roll No: _________________________

LAB
INDICATOR
TOTAL 1 2 1 1 5
OBTAINED
BJT Small Signal Common Emitter Amplifier

Learning Outcomes:
 Introduce the concept of small signal amplifiers.
 Determine the operation of a single stage Bipolar Junction transistor when used as a
common emitter (CE) small signal amplifier.
 Replicate the given CE circuit using kit and breadboard.
 Imitate the CE amplifier circuit design with a small change of parameters.
Required Equipment and Components:

Equipment Components
Oscilloscope Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT), type 2N3904
General-purpose function generator Fixed resistor (68k  , 27k  , 1.2K  , 680  )
0  15 Power supply 2 Capacitors (100  F)
Feed Back Trainer kit
Breadboard
Digital Multi-meter
Theory:
Amplifier is the conventional term used to portray a circuit which delivers and expanded
variant of its input signal. Be that as it may, not all amplifier circuits are equivalent to they
are grouped by their circuit arrangements and methods of activity.
In “Electronics”, small signal amplifiers are normally utilized tools as they can intensify a
generally little input signal, for instance from a Sensor such as a photo-device, into an a lot
bigger output signal to drive a relay, lamp or loudspeaker for instance.
Small Signal Amplifiers

 Small Signal Amplifiers are otherwise called Voltage Amplifiers.
 Voltage Amplifiers have 3 fundamental properties, Input Resistance, Output
Resistance and Gain.
 The Gain of a small signal amplifier is the amount by which the amplifier “Amplifies”
the input signals.
 In order to amplify all of the input signal distortion free in a Class A type amplifier,
DC Base Biasing is required.
 DC Bias sets the Q-point of the amplifier half way along the load line.
 This DC Base biasing implies that the amplifier devours power regardless of whether
there is no input sign present.
 The transistor amplifier is non-linear and an incorrect bias setting will produce large
amounts of distortion to the output waveform.
 Too large an input signal will produce large amounts of distortion due to clipping,
which is also a form of amplitude distortion.
 Incorrect positioning of the Q-point on the load line will produce either Saturation
Clipping or Cut-off Clipping.
The Common Emitter Amplifier arrangement is the most widely recognized type of all the
universally useful voltage amplifier circuit utilizing a Bipolar Junction Transistor.
Mode of Operation:
Fig. 1 shows the circuit of a single-stage CE amplifier using an NPN transistor. Here, base is
the driven element. The input signal is injected into the base emitter circuit whereas output
signal is taken out from the collector emitter circuit. The E/B junction is forward biased by
VBB and C/B junction is reversed-biased by VCC (in fact, same battery VCC can provide dc
power for both base and collector). The Q-point or working condition is determined by VCC
together with RB and RC.
The single stage common emitter amplifier circuit shown below uses what is commonly
called “Voltage Divider Biasing”. This sort of biasing arrangement utilizes two resistors as a
potential divider network across the supply with their center point supplying the required
Base bias voltage to the transistor. Voltage divider biasing is commonly used in the design of
bipolar transistor amplifier circuits.
This method of biasing the transistor greatly reduces the effects of varying Beta, ( β ) by
holding the Base bias at a constant steady voltage level allowing for best stability.
Figure 2: Common Emitter Amplifier
Characteristics of a CE Amplifier:
A CE transistor amplifier has the following characteristics:
1. It has moderately low input resistance (1 K to 2 K),

2. Its output resistance is moderately large (50 K or so),
3. Its current gain (β) is high (50–300),
4. It has very high voltage gain of the order of 1500 or so,
5. It produces very high power gain of the order of 10,000 times or 40 dB,
6. It produces phase reversal of input signal i.e. input and output signals are 180° out of
phase with each other.
Procedure:
1. Utilizing the kit, make the connections according to Figure 2 using the Bypass circuit
that is capacitor C2 should be connected through emitter resistor RE.
2. Give an input to the amplifier so that the output is 1 Vpp at 1 kHz Measure the input
voltage (f=1 kHz).
3. Adjust the input signal through function generator until the output sine wave is no
longer clipped which is being displayed through oscilloscope.
4. Observe voltages and currents at different nodes.
5. Calculate the voltage gain of the amplifier by observing Vi and Vo.
6. Using Av, determine the Ai and Ap.
7. Now remove the Bypass circuit that is capacitor C2 should be unconnected, repeat the
same procedure and compare the results.
8. Replicate steps 1-7 using bread board.
Observation/Results:
CE configuration:
Transistor code: ________, Transistor type: ______ (PNP/NPN) RB = _____, RC = ________

RE=________, CC1= ________, CB= ________
With Bypass Capacitor:
Source Vi Vo Ii Io Zin Zout Av Ai AP Power gain

( dB )
Kit
Bead
Board
Without Bypass Capacitor:

( dB )
Kit
Bead
Board
Review Questions:
 What effect does By-pass capacitor have on the voltage gain?

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 Capacitors C1 and C2 are used as Coupling Capacitors, Why are they used?
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 Why capacitors don’t take part in DC analysis?

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 All small signal amplifiers work in an active region. But to design these amplifier
circuits is it necessary to draw a "load line chart"? If not then in order to design a BJT
amplifier what parameters are required?
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 Why we need to know Input resistance to an amplifier?

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Task:
Replicate the CE amplifier circuit in multisim by varying the values of R1, R2, RE, RC, CC1
one by one and explain the effect of changing the value of a given component respectively.
Calculation Formulas:
a) Voltage Gain (Av):

Vo
 Voltage gain is the ratio of output voltage to input voltage. Av 
Vi
 Observe input ac voltage Vi at the terminal of Coupling Capacitor1.
 Observe output ac voltage Vo at the collector.
b) Current Gain (Ai):

Io
 Current gain is the ratio of collector current (Io) to the base current (Ii). Ai 
Ii
 For input current Ii, according to ohm’s law. Ii  V 1( R1 \ \ R 2)
Vo
 For output current Io. Io 
Rc
c) Power Gain (Ap):
 It is the ratio of output signal power to input signal power.
 Power Gain= Ap  Av  Ai
 Power gain in dB  10 log Ap
d) Input Resistance:
Small signal input resistance is measured at the input of the transistor to the small signal
ground.
Vin
Zin 
Iin
e) Output Resistance:
Small signal output impedance Zout can be measured by removing (short circuiting) the
input voltage source Vs and inserting a test voltage source between the output terminals
(parallel to RE ).
Vout
Zout  Iout
Name: __________________________ Roll No: _________________________
LAB
INDICATOR
TOTAL 2 1 1 1 5
OBTAINED
BJT Small Signal Common Collector Amplifier

Learning Outcomes:
common collector (CC) small signal amplifier.
 Replicate the given CC circuit using kit and breadboard.
 Imitate the CC amplifier circuit design with a small change of parameters.

General-purpose function generator 2 Capacitors (100  F)
0  15 Power supply Fixed resistor (68k  , 27k  , 1.2  , 680  )
Breadboard
Digital Multi-meter
Theory:
From numerous point of views the common collector configuration (CC) is the reverse of the
common emitter (CE) configuration as the connected load resistor is changed from the
collector terminal for RC to the emitter terminal for RE.
The common collector or grounded collector configuration is commonly used where a high
impedance input source needs to be connected to a low impedance output load requiring a
high current gain. The former conditions make CC an ideal buffer between a high impedance
source and a low impedance load. A buffer is any circuit that keeps the source from being
affected by a load.
Mode of Operation:
Fig.1 and 2 shows the circuit of a single-stage CC amplifier using an NPN transistor. The
input signal is injected into the base-collector circuit and output signal is taken out from the
emitter collector circuit. The E/B junction is forward-biased by VEE and C/B junction is
reverse-biased by VCC. The quiescent values of IB and IE are set by VCC and VEE together
with RB and RE.
Figure 2: Common Collector Amplifier
Characteristics of a CC Amplifier:
A CC amplifier has the following characteristics:
1. High input impedance (20-500 K),
2. Low output impedance (50-1000 Ω),
3. High current gain of (1 + β) i.e. 50 – 500,
4. Voltage gain of less than 1,
5. Power gain of 10 to 20 dB,
6. No phase reversal of the input signal.
Procedure:
1. Utilizing the kit, make the connections according to Figure 2 without using the
Bypass circuit that is capacitor C2 should remains unconnected.
voltage (f=1 kHz).
5. Then calculate the voltage gain of the amplifier.
CC configuration:
Transistor code: ________, Transistor type: ______ (PNP/NPN) RB = _____, RE = ________

RC=________, CC1= ________, CB= ________

( dB )
Kit
Bead
Board
Review Questions:
 Another name for the CC amplifier is the emitter follower. Based on the gain that you
have found, why do you think it is called that?
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 Why CC amplifier is useful for impedance matching?
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 Why the output signal present at the emitter is in-phase with the applied input signal
at the base?
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 Which operating mode is used when the transistor is being utilized as an amplifier?
What is the condition or desired biasing of junctions for that operating mode? Does
ES-203: Electronic Circuit Design
that condition changes, when the transistor is configured as CC? Briefly explain your
answer in terms of biasing.
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 Does the voltage gain vary, by varying input voltage? Also, give reasons.
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 Does varying input voltage effect the current gain? Also, give reasons.
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Task:
Replicate the CC amplifier circuit in multisim by varying the values of R1, R2, RE, RC, CC1
Name: __________________________ Roll No: _________________________
LAB
INDICATOR
TOTAL 2 1 1 1 5
OBTAINED
BJT Small Signal Common Base Amplifier

Learning Outcomes:
common base (CB) small signal amplifier.
 Replicate the given CB circuit using kit and breadboard.
 Imitate the CB amplifier circuit design with a small change of parameters.

General-purpose function generator Few resistors
0  15 Power supply 2 Capacitors
Breadboard
Digital Multi-meter
Theory:
The Common Base Amplifier is another type of bipolar junction transistor, (BJT)
configuration where the base terminal of the transistor is a common terminal to both the input
and output signals, hence its name common base (CB). The common base configuration is
less common as an amplifier than compared to the more popular common emitter, (CE)
or common collector, (CC) configurations but is still used due to its unique input/output
characteristics.
The common-base amplifier can provide a reasonable level of voltage gain but suffers from
low input impedance and a current gain of less than one. However, this circuit is used in
high-frequency applications because its terminal characteristics at high frequencies are better
than those of a common-emitter configuration using the same transistor. The low input
impedance of the common base amplifier will limit its use to specialized RF applications.
Mode of Operation:
Fig. 1 shows the circuit of a single-stage CB amplifier using NPN transistor. As seen, input
ac signal is injected into the emitter-base circuit and output is taken from the collector-base
circuit. The E/B junction is forward-biased by VEE where as C/B junction is reverse-biased
by VCC. The Q-point or dc working conditions are determined by dc batteries along with
resistors RE and RC. In other words, values of IE, IB and VCB are decided by VCC, VEE,
RE and RC. The voltage VCB is given by the equation VCB= VCC – ICRC. When no signal
is applied to the input circuit, the output just sits at the Q-point so that there is no output
signal.
Figure 2: Common Base Amplifier
Characteristics of a CB Amplifier:
A CB amplifier has the following characteristics:
1. Very low input resistance (30 – 150 Ω).
2. Very high output resistance (up to 500 K).
3. A current gain α < 1.
4. Large voltage gain of about 1500.
5. Power gain of up to 30 dB.
6. No phase reversal between input and output voltages.
Procedure:
1. Utilizing the kit, make the connections according to Figure 2 without using the
Bypass circuit that is capacitor C2 should remains unconnected.
voltage (f=1 kHz).
CB configuration:
Transistor code: ________, Transistor type: ______ (PNP/NPN) RE = _____, RC =

________ RB=________, CC1= ________, CB= ________

( dB )
Bead
Board
Review Questions:
 Since the current gain of CB amplifier is actually less than unity, what is the
usefulness of this amplifier?
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 Why two resistors are connected in parallel with base terminal, when emitter and
collector require only one resistor?
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 How a capacitor can be chosen from electrolytic and non electrolytic capacitor?
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 Compare and contrast three configurations of the transistor?

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Task:
Replicate the CB amplifier circuit in multisim by varying the values of R1, R2, RE, RC, CC1
Name: __________________________ Roll No: _________________________

LAB
INDICATOR
TOTAL 2 1 1 1 5
OBTAINED
FET Small Signal Common Source Amplifier

Learning Outcomes:
 Determine the operation of a single stage Field-effect transistor when used as a
common source (CS) small signal amplifier.
 Replicate the given CS circuit using kit and breadboard.
 Imitate the CS amplifier circuit design with a small change of parameters.

Oscilloscope Field Effect Transistor (FET)
0  15 Power supply Capacitors
Breadboard
Digital Multi-meter
Theory:
The Field Effect Transistor (FET) is another significant kind of transistor other than the
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT). FETs depend on an Electric Field to control the
conductivity of a Channel in a semiconductor material. There are two general classes of
FETs: the Metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOSFET) and the Junction FET (JFET).
The Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET) can be designed as an Amplifier in which it
works in linear amplification mode. Like the BJT, it can likewise be arranged as an
Electronic Switch, in which it works on the other hand in cutoff and triode mode.
However, in numerous circuits FET is given benefit over BJT because of its capacity to give
greater input impedance, voltage gain and more susceptible to temperature (which reduce
noise level). FET can be utilized in phase-shift oscillators to minimize the loading effect.
There are three basic configurations of JFET Amplifier: the Common-Source (CS) Amplifier,
the Common-Drain (CD) Amplifier and the Common-Gate (CG) Amplifier.
The CS Amplifier is the most versatile of the three basic JFET amplifier configurations due
to its high input impedance and good voltage amplification The common source mode of FET
connection is generally used audio frequency amplifiers and in high input impedance pre-
amps and stages.
Mode of Operation:
For a Common-Source (CS) Amplifier, which is shown in Figure 1, the Input Signal is at the
Gate, the Output Signal is at the Drain and the Source is at ground for AC signals due to the
Bypass Capacitor CS. C1 is the Coupling Capacitor for the Input signal. The CS Amplifier is
analogous to the BJT Common-Emitter Amplifier.
Figure 1: Circuit of a JFET Common-Source Amplifier
Characteristics of a CS Amplifier:
The CS Amplifier provides
 Almost an infinite Current Gain
 A moderate Voltage Gain (around -10).
 An extremely high Input Resistance (around 100 MΩ)
 A high Output Resistance (around 500 kΩ).
 A Phase Shift of 180° from Input to Output.
Procedure:
1. Utilizing the kit, make the connections according to Figure 1.
2. Give an input to the amplifier so that the output is 1 Vpp at 1 kHz, measure the input
voltage (f=1 kHz).
4. Observe the input and output voltage.
CS configuration:
Transistor code: ________, Transistor type: ________ RG = _____, RD = ________ RS =

________, CC1= ________, CS= ________
Source Vi Vo Av
Kit
Review Questions:
 Briefly explain how FETs utilize the voltage that is applied to their input terminal,
called the Gate to control the current flowing through them resulting in the output
current being proportional to the input voltage?
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 Which type of biasing method is used in the above circuit?

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 Explain in terms of mathematical equation, how FETs configured as CS amplifier

have infinite current gain?
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 What are the disadvantages of FET?

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 What are the main constructional differences between a MOSFET and a BJT? What
effect do they have on the current conduction mechanism of a MOSFET?
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By Engr. Qudsia Memon

 What does it mean “the channel is pinched off”?
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 A BJT is a current controlled device because its output characteristics are determined
by the input current. A FET is voltage controlled device because its output
characteristics are determined by the Field which depends on the Voltage applied.
Since, current and voltage are generated in unison so why BJT is still called current
controlled and FET is called voltage controlled?
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Task:
Replicate the CS amplifier circuit in multisim by varying the values of RG1, RG2, RD, RS and
CC1 one by one and explain the effect of changing the value of a given component
respectively.
Name: __________________________ Roll No: _________________________
LAB
INDICATOR
TOTAL 2 1 1 1 5
OBTAINED
To observe the Frequency Response of Common Emitter Amplifier

Learning Outcomes:
 Introduce the concept of frequency response.
 Introduce the concept of DC and AC analysis.
 Introduce the high frequency model equivalent model for BJT.
 Determine the frequency response of BJT amplifier.

Breadboard
Digital Multi-meter
Theory:
Frequency Response:
Electrical engineers need to understand the intimate relationship between frequency and time.
Circuits can be characterized both in time and frequency domain. It is important that an electrical
engineer be able to travel between these two worlds effortlessly. Sometimes, a circuit problem
that is difficult in one domain can be easily analyzed in the other domain. A good place to begin
the study of the time-frequency relationship is in the design and analysis of a transistor amplifier
circuit. An amplifier can be characterized by many properties. The most obvious one that comes
to mind is gain. One would certainly like to know how much their circuit amplifies. However,
gain is not constant with frequency. If it was, then one could use their stereo amplifier to amplify
any electrical signal regardless of frequency, obviously this would reduce the demand for
electronics engineers. Luckily, the relationship between gain and frequency can be quite
complicated and ensures the continued employment of electronics engineers. Generally an
amplifier has a lower limit and an upper limit to the frequencies that it can amplify. These limits
can have many names such as lower -3dB point, upper -3dB point, Fl, Fh, lower corner frequency,
upper corner frequency, etc. It is best to refer to these limits as the lower and upper -3dB
frequencies or corner frequencies.
AC & DC Analysis:
a) DC Analysis:
As we know the frequency in DC is equal zero because there is no oscillation in DC signal so,
the reactance of capacitor is equal infinity that mean the capacitors work as open circuit.
Figure 1: DC Analysis
b) AC Analysis:
In this analysis we will study the effect of capacitors in different level of frequencies that is at
low, middle and high frequency.
Before we start our analysis, first we need to know the names of capacitors and its locations, there
are two type of capacitor:
 Practical capacitors: Cin, Cout, CE these capacitors are connected as shown and it’s
effective in low frequency.
 Virtual capacitors: Cwi, Cwo, CBE, CBC, CCE these capacitors are appears and effectives
on the high frequency because its value in Nano-farad.
Figure 2: The sample circuit diagram of BJT amplifier
Figure 3: High frequency AC equivalent model

Cases of capacitor:
The relationship between frequency and capacitance is given by:
𝑋𝑐 = 1/2𝜋𝑓C
 At very low frequency the capacitor works as open circuit.
 At very high frequency the capacitor works as short circuit.
 At normal frequency the capacitor have a magnitude and effect on the frequency response.
Now, we will show the relationship between the voltage gain and varying frequency and defined
the regions. The frequency response of BJT amplifier is shown in figure 4.
Frequency Response Curve of BJT amplifier:
Figure 4: The frequency response of BJT amplifier
The frequency response begins with the lower frequency range designated between 0 Hz and
lower cutoff frequency. At lower cutoff frequency, fL , the gain is equal to 0.707 Amid. Amid is a
constant mid-band gain obtained from the mid-frequency range. The third, the higher frequency
range covers frequency between upper cutoff frequency and above. Similarly, at higher cutoff
frequency, fH, the gain is equal to 0.707 Amid. Beyond this the gain decreases with frequency
increases and dies off eventually.
The Lower Frequency Range: (𝟎 → 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒘)

Since the impedance of coupling capacitors increases as frequency decreases, the voltage gain of a
BJT amplifier decreases as frequency decreases. At very low frequencies, the capacitive reactance
of the coupling capacitors may become large enough to drop some of the input voltage or output
voltage. Also, the emitter-bypass capacitor may become large enough so that it no longer shorts
the emitter resistor to ground.
The Higher Frequency Range: (𝑭𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉 → ∞)

The capacitive reactance of a capacitor decreases as frequency increases. This can lead to
problems for amplifiers used for high-frequency amplification. The ultimate high cutoff frequency
of an amplifier is determined by the physical capacitances associated with every component and
of the physical wiring. Transistors have internal capacitances that shunt signal paths thus reducing
the gain. The high cutoff frequency is related to a shunt time constant formed by resistances and
capacitances associated with a node.
Procedure:
1. Utilizing the kit, make the connections as CE amplifier.
2. Set the amplitude of the input signal to by using the attenuation knob of the function
generator.
3. Connect the oscilloscope at the output of the amplifier and observe the output waveform.
4. Now keep the amplitude constant and change the frequency to 1Hz.
5. Similarly change the frequencies logarithmically starting from 1Hz and up to 1MHz and fill
the following table.
VS = ________V
Frequency (Hz) Vo(Volts) Gain = Vo/Vs Gain(dB) = 20 log(Vo/Vs)
10
100
1k
10k
50k
100k
1M
2M
5M
Common Emitter Amplifier is studied and its Bandwidth is calculated.

1. Maximum Gain ( Amax ) = ___________ dB
2. 3dB Gain = ___________ dB
3. 3dB Lower cut-off frequency, fL = ___________ Hz
4. 3dB Upper cut-off frequency, fH = ___________ Hz
5. 3dB Bandwidth ( fH - fL ) = ___________ Hz
Review Questions:
 What is Bandwidth of an amplifier?
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________
 When modifying the given circuits, why one must only change the capacitance and not the
resistance of the circuit?
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________
 What do you mean by Miller theorem and Miller’s effect?

______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________
 During the analysis of the CE amplifier’s response over a wide range of frequency, why
didn’t you consider the Bypass capacitor?
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________
 Explain using mathematical formula how capacitors behave as open circuit during DC
analysis?
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______________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________
 Explain figure 4 in terms of mathematical formula that how capacitors behave open and
short at low and high frequencies respectively?
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________
Task:
Replicate the CC and CB amplifier circuit in multisim and explain the frequency response you
observe by comparing it to CE amplifier’s response over the range of the frequency you observed
practically.
Name: __________________________ Roll No: _________________________
LAB
INDICATOR
TOTAL 2 1 1 1 5
OBTAINED
To observe the Frequency Response of Common Source Amplifier

Learning Outcomes:
 Determine the frequency response of FET amplifier.
 Determine the comparison between frequency responses of BJT and FET amplifier.

Oscilloscope Field Effect transistor (FET)
Breadboard
Digital Multi-meter
Theory:
In general, BJT is much faster than the FET. This is the reason that BJT amplifiers can operate at
wide range frequencies as compare to the FET amplifiers.
In an ideal amplifier, the gain is independent of frequency and the amplitude of the input signal.
However from the practical point of view, the small signal amplifiers can provide a constant gain
(that is still independent of the amplitude of the input signal) for a particular range of frequencies.
The range at which they provide a constant gain is called pass-band. Below and after that range
the gain decreases to a considerable amount. To determine the midband frequency region of the
amplifier, the signals of same amplitude are applied at different frequencies. The experiments
proved that the FET amplifier couldn’t provide a constant gain at wide range of frequencies as the
BJT amplifier did. Figure below shows the frequency response of FET amplifier.
Figure 1: Frequency Response of FET Amplifier

Procedure:
1. Utilizing the kit, make the connections as CS amplifier.
2. Set the amplitude of the input signal to by using the attenuation knob of the function
generator.
3. Connect the oscilloscope at the output of the amplifier and observe the output waveform.
4. Now keep the amplitude constant and change the frequency to 1Hz.
5. Similarly change the frequencies logarithmically starting from 10 Hz and up to 5 MHz and fill
the following table.
VS = __________V
Frequency(Hz) Vo(Volts) Gain = Vo/Vs Gain(dB) = 20 log(Vo/Vs)
10
100
1k
10k
50k
100k
1M
2M
5M
Common source amplifier is studied and its Bandwidth is calculated.

1. Maximum Gain ( Amax ) = ___________ dB
2. 3dB Gain = ___________ dB
3. 3dB Lower cut-off frequency, fL = ___________ Hz
4. 3dB Upper cut-off frequency, fH = ___________ Hz
5. 3dB Bandwidth ( fH - fL ) = ___________ Hz
Review Questions:
 Why does FET make much less noise than BJT?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
 Why BJT is faster than the FET in current mode signal processing?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
 Why BJTs produce more gains comparative to FETs, when same amount of power has
been utilized at the input?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
 Briefly explain what is meant by transconductance and voltage amplifier? Also, consider
their characteristics.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
 Common-source FET circuit which is analogous to BJT circuit may be viewed as a

transconductance amplifier or as a voltage amplifier but among respective ideal conditions
of these amplifiers what quality is not present in FET circuit?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
 Why does FET have higher bandwidth than BJT?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Task:
Replicate the voltage divider biased common source
amplifier circuit in multisim shown in figure. Omit the
bypass capacitor and explain the frequency response
you observe by comparing it to Self biased CS
amplifier’s response over the range of the frequency
you observed practically.
Name: __________________________ Roll No: _________________________
LAB
INDICATOR
TOTAL 1 1.5 1.5 1 5
OBTAINED
To observe the Operating Characteristics of a Push pull amplifier

Learning Outcomes:
 Introduce the concept of large signal amplifiers.
 Determine the operation of a push pull amplifier.
 Replicate the given push pull amplifier circuits using breadboard.

Oscilloscope Bipolar Junction Transistor (NPN and PNP)
General-purpose function generator Fixed resistors
Breadboard
Digital Multi-meter
Theory:
The main disadvantage of using small signal amplifier is their efficiency, as the majority of the power
drawn from the supply is used by the amplifier itself, this goes against the primary purpose of a
power amplifier, which is to deliver power drawn from supply to load. The solution comes in form of
large signal amplifier.
Large Signal Amplifiers:
 Large Signal Amplifiers are also known as Power Amplifiers.
 Power Amplifiers can be sub-divided into different Classes, for example:
o Class A Amplifiers – where the output device conducts for all of the input cycle.
o Class B Amplifiers – where the output device conducts for only 50% of the input
cycle.
o Class AB Amplifiers – where the output device conducts for more than 50% but less
than 100% of the input cycle.
 An ideal Power Amplifier would deliver 100% of the available DC power to the load.
 Class A amplifiers are the most common form of power amplifier but only have an efficiency
rating of less than 40%.
 Class B amplifiers are more efficient than Class A amplifiers at around 70% but produce high
amounts of distortion.
 Class B amplifiers consume very little power when there is no input signal present.
 By using the “Push-pull” output stage configuration, distortion can be greatly reduced.
 There are three classifications of Push-Pull Amplifier which are given below but generally
Class B Amplifier is considered as Push Pull Amplifier.
o Class A amplifier
o Class B amplifier
o Class AB amplifier
 However, simple push-pull Class B Power amplifiers can produce high levels of Crossover
Distortion due to their cut-off point biasing.
 A common method to remove that crossover distortion in Class B amplifier is to bias both the
transistor at a point slightly above then the cut-off point of transistor. Then this circuit is
known as Class AB amplifier circuit
Push Pull Amplifier:
Push-pull amplifiers use two “complementary” or matching transistors, one being an NPN-type and
the other being a PNP-type with both power transistors receiving the same input signal together that
is equal in magnitude, but in opposite phase to each other. This results in one transistor only
amplifying one half or 180o of the input waveform cycle while the other transistor amplifies the other
half or remaining 180o of the input waveform cycle with the resulting “two-halves” being put back
together again at the output terminal. Then the conduction angle for this type of amplifier circuit is
only 180o or 50% of the input signal. This pushing and pulling effect of the alternating half cycles by
the transistors gives this type of circuit its amusing “push-pull” name.
The Class AB amplifier circuit is the combination of both Class A and Class B amplifier. By adding
the diode, transistors are biased in slightly conducting state even when no signal is present at base
terminal, thus removing the crossover distortion problem. A small collector current will flow when
there is no input signal but it is much less than that for the Class A amplifier configuration. This
means then that the transistor will be “ON” for more than half a cycle of the waveform but much less
than a full cycle giving a conduction angle of between 180o to 360o or 50% to 100% of the input
signal depending upon the amount of additional biasing used.
Figure 1: Class B Push-pull amplifier
Figure 2: Class AB Push-pull amplifier with resistor and diode biasing
Procedure:
1. Make the circuit as shown in figure 1.

2. Record the output voltage without the input signal.
3. Then record the output voltage by applying the input signal. Observe the distortion in output
waveform
4. Now, make the circuit as shown in figure 2.
5. Replicate the steps 2-3; also observe the distortion less output waveform.
Vi Class B (Vo) Class AB (Vo)
Without Signal
With Signal
Review Questions:
 What is the main source of distortion in a push pull amplifier?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________
 Briefly explain why do you think Q1 is in phase and Q2 is out of phase?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________
 Write the advantages and disadvantages of Push Pull Amplifier?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________
Task:
 Calculate the Q-Points of Class B and AB Push-pull amplifier circuit shown in figure 1 and 2
respectively.
 Replicate the Class B and AB Push-pull amplifier circuit in multisim shown in figure 1 and 2
respectively. Replace the ordinary NPN/PNP transistors by power transistors BD329/BD330
respectively. Set the input voltage as 1.5Vp. Compare the output waveforms at different
frequencies to observe distortion in class B push pull amplifier while class AB has distortion
less output waveform. Also, use measurement probe across input and RL to observe ac and dc
values of current as well as voltage. Attach the screenshot of waveforms.
 Imitate the Push-pull amplifier circuit utilizing the Darlington and feedback pair in multisim
as shown below in figure 3 and 4 respectively in order to observe their characteristics.
Figure 3: Push-pull amplifier using Figure 4: Push-pull amplifier

Darlington pair using feedback pair
Name: __________________________ Roll No: _________________________
LAB
INDICATOR
TOTAL 1 1 2 1 5
OBTAINED
To observe the Operating Characteristics of a Tuned Amplifier

Learning Outcomes:
 Introduce the concept of Tuning.
 Determine the operation of a Tuned amplifier.
 Replicate the given Tuned amplifier circuit using kit.

Oscilloscope Variable Inductor/coil
General-purpose function generator Variable Capacitor
Power supply
Theory:
The sorts of amplifiers that we have talked about so far can't work successfully at radio
frequencies, despite the fact that they are great at audio frequencies. Also, the gain of these
amplifiers is such that it will not vary according to the frequency of the signal, over a wide range.
This allows the amplification of the signal equally well over a range of frequencies and does not
permit the selection of particular desired frequency while rejecting the other frequencies. So, there
occurs a need for a circuit which can select as well as amplify. So, an amplifier circuit along with
a selection, such as a tuned circuit makes a Tuned amplifier.
Tuned Amplifier:
Tuned amplifiers are the amplifiers that are employed for the
purpose of tuning. Tuning means selecting. Among a set of
frequencies available, if there occurs a need to select a particular
frequency, while rejecting all other frequencies, such a process is
called Selection. This selection is done by using a circuit called as
Tuned circuit. The tuned amplifier circuit is just like BJT/FET
voltage-divider circuit with an exception that a TANK circuit
replaces the Rc/Rd. A TANK circuit is the parallel combination of
an inductor and a capacitor, as shown in figure 1.
Figure 1: L.C Tank
When an amplifier circuit has its load replaced by a tuned circuit, such an amplifier can be called
as a Tuned amplifier circuit. The basic tuned amplifier circuit looks as shown in figure 2.
Figure 2: Simple Tuned Amplifier
Tuned amplifier provide high constant gain over a specified bandwidth centered at a specified
frequency f and as much rejection as possible outside this band practical gain and phase
characteristics are shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Frequency Response of Tuned Amplifier
If the frequency increases then Xc (capacitance reactance) decreases and X L (inductance

reactance) increases. When the reactance of the inductor balances the reactance of the capacitor,
in the tuned circuit at some frequency, such a frequency can be called as resonant frequency. It is
denoted by fr. At frequencies below resonance, the tank circuit is inductive and above it, is
capacitive. The formula for resonance is
The very important factor which is responsible for affecting the bandwidth of a Tuned amplifier is
“Q-factor” or “Quality-factor of the tuned amplifier”. It could be defined as the “ratio of center
frequency (fo) to the bandwidth”.
fo 1
i.e. Q  Or Q  (It is unit less measure of the quality of the coil).
BW 2foRC
Where BW = f2 − f1
Tuned circuit can be used as a load for class B and class C power amplifier operation. It
eliminates the harmonics, and then the output will be a pure sine wave although the collector
current is distorted. A single stage tuned amplifier is seldom used in practice. Generally, a double-
tuned type is preferred, due to using it in cascaded amplification.
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 2.

2. Set the input signal Vi by using the Signal Generator.
3. Note down the values of L and C where resonant frequency occurs practically.
4. Now, keep the input voltage constant and note down the practical values of frequency by
varying one parameter at a time that is, L, and C respectively.
5. Also, note down the values of voltage at respective values of L and C.
Vi = ________V
L C Theoretical frequency Practical frequency Vo
fo (KHz) fo (KHz)
Review Questions:
 While performing the practical at which values of L and C, you observed the resonant
frequency? How did you decide that it is the resonant frequency for the respective
amplifier?
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______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
 How does tank circuit behaves as an open-circuit at resonant frequency?

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 What are the factors that can affect the performance of the Tuned amplifier?
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 Why tuned amplifier cannot be used at low frequency?
______________________________________________________________________________
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 What is the other name used for tuned amplifier?

______________________________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
 Define Single tuned and double tuned amplifier?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
 What is Stagger tuned amplifier?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Task:
Replicate the Single Tuned amplifier circuit in multisim. By taking 3 different values of L and C
Calculate fo, Q, BW and gain at resonant theoretically and compare your results with software
results obtained. Then, briefly explain your observations in terms of frequency response.
Name: __________________________ Roll No: _________________________
LAB
INDICATOR
TOTAL 1 2 1 1 5
OBTAINED
To Understand the Operation of R-C Coupled Two Stage Bipolar Junction

Transistor Amplifiers
Learning Outcomes:
 Introduce the concept of multistage amplifiers.
 Determine the multistage amplifiers on the basis of coupling.
 Replicate the given R-C coupled two-stage BJT amplifier circuit using breadboard.

Oscilloscope Bipolar Junction Transistor
General-purpose function generator Few Resistors
0  15 Power supply Few Capacitors
Connecting Leads
Theory:
Multi-stage transistor amplifiers:
In practical applications, the output of a single state amplifier is usually insufficient, though it is a
voltage or power amplifier. Hence they are replaced by Multi-stage transistor amplifiers.
In Multi-stage amplifiers, the output of first stage is coupled to the input of next stage using a
coupling device. These coupling devices can usually be a capacitor or a transformer. This process
of joining two amplifier stages using a coupling device can be called as Cascading. The following
figure shows a two-stage amplifier connected in cascade.
The overall gain is the product of voltage gain of individual stages.
Where AV = Overall gain, AV1 = Voltage gain of 1st stage, and AV2 = Voltage gain of 2nd stage.
If there is n number of stages, the product of voltage gains of those n stages will be the overall
gain of that multistage amplifier circuit.
The following parameters should be maintained properly during the process of cascading:
 Impedance Matching: When coupling amplifier stages together impedance matching is
important so that as much signal as possible is transferred from the output of one stage to
the input of the next, keeping inter stage losses to a minimum.
 Correct Frequency Response: Ensuring that the correct bandwidth is maintained
throughout all stages of amplification.
 DC Isolation: Whether it is required or not. It may be required that where the output of
one stage is at a different DC potential to the input of the next, the two stages are
electrically isolated from each other.
Classification of amplifiers in terms of coupling:

Since, joining one amplifier stage with the other in cascade, using coupling devices form
a Multi-stage amplifier circuit. Following are the basic methods of coupling,
 Resistance-Capacitance Coupling
 Impedance Coupling
 Transformer Coupling
 Direct Coupling
Resistance-capacitance (RC) coupling is most widely used to connect the output of first stage to
the input (base) of the second stage and so on. It is the most popular type of coupling because it is
cheap and provides a constant amplification over a wide range of frequencies. These R-C coupled
amplifier circuits are commonly used as voltage amplifiers in the audio systems. Figure 1 shows
the circuit diagram of the R-C coupled two-stage BJT amplifier.
Figure 1: R-C coupled two-stage BJT amplifier
Procedure:
1. Make a circuit as shown in figure 1.

2. Set the input signal Vi by using the Signal Generator.
3. Initially calculate the gain of the first stage, and then calculate the gain of the second
stage.
4. Get the product of the two stages.
5. Take at least 3 readings by varying input signal.
Input Gain (Av1) Gain (Av2) Overall Gain Av

Signal 1st stage 2nd stage Av=Av1 x Av2 Measured
Review Questions:
 Briefly explain the difference between following Classifications of amplifiers on the basis
of coupling: Resistance-Capacitance, Impedance, Transformer and Direct Coupling?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
 What are the two basic purposes of a coupling device?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
 What is the effect on the total bandwidth, if amplifiers are connected in cascaded form?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Task:
Replicate the two-stage CS JFET amplifier circuit in multisim shown in figure and explain the
gain you observe at both stages by comparing it to the two-stage CE BJT amplifier’s gain over the
range of the input signal you observed practically.
Figure 2: A two-stage CS JFET amplifier circuit.

Name: __________________________ Roll No: _________________________

LAB
INDICATOR
TOTAL 1 2 1 1 5
OBTAINED
To Understand the Operation of Colpitts Oscillator

Learning Outcomes:
 Introduce the concept of an electronic oscillator and its principal types.
 Introduce the concept of LC electronic oscillators.
 Determine the operation of Colpitts Oscillator.
 Replicate the given oscillator circuit using kit.

Oscilloscope Connecting Leads
F.B Trainer kit Probes
L.C tank
0  15 Power supply
Theory:
Oscillator:
 An oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a periodic, oscillating electronic signal,
often a sine wave or a square wave. Oscillators convert direct current (DC) from a power
supply to an alternating current (AC) signal.
 The main requirement of an oscillator is that the output should be uniform and may not
vary in frequency or amplitude.
 A tank circuit is formed when a capacitor is connected in parallel with an inductor and
oscillates when an external voltage source is applied. The oscillations of a tank circuit are
dampened by the resistance of the circuit. For a tank circuit to maintain oscillation,
positive feedback is required.
 An oscillator has three basic parts: a frequency- determining device, an amplifier, and a
feedback circuit.
 There are two main types of electronic oscillator – the linear or harmonic oscillator and the
nonlinear or relaxation oscillator.
 The harmonic, or linear, oscillator produces a sinusoidal output. There are two types:
Feedback oscillator and Negative-resistance oscillator.
 Feedback oscillators are further classified as LC oscillators, crystal oscillators, and RC
oscillators. Typical LC oscillator circuits are the Hartley, Colpitts and Clapp circuits.
Although Crystal oscillators provide more stability than LC oscillators while RC
oscillators use resistance-capacitance networks to determine the oscillator frequency.
 A nonlinear or relaxation oscillator produces a non-sinusoidal output, such as a square,
saw tooth or triangle wave. A relaxation oscillator stores energy in a reactive component
during one part of the oscillation cycle. Examples of relaxation oscillators are blocking
oscillators and multi-vibrators.
 Oscillators are widely used in many electronic devices ranging from simplest clock
generators to digital instruments (like calculators) and complex computers and peripherals
etc. Common examples of signals generated by oscillators include signals broadcast by
radio and television transmitters, clock signals that regulate computers and quartz clocks,
and the sounds produced by electronic beepers and video games.
Colpitts Oscillator:
 The Colpitts circuit, like other LC oscillators, consists of a gain device (such as a bipolar
junction transistor, field-effect transistor, operational amplifier, or vacuum tube) with its
output connected to its input in a feedback loop containing a parallel LC circuit (tuned
circuit), which functions as a band pass filter to set the frequency of oscillation.
 The emitter terminal of the transistor is effectively connected to the junction of the two
capacitors, C1 and C2 which are connected in series and act as a simple voltage divider.
When the power supply is firstly applied, capacitors C1 and C2 charge up and then
discharge through the coil L. The oscillations across the capacitors are applied to the base-
emitter junction and appear in the amplified at the collector output.
 Resistors, R1 and R2 provide the usual stabilizing DC bias for the transistor in the normal
manner while the additional capacitors act as DC-blocking bypass capacitors.
 The required external phase shift is obtained in a way that the configuration of the
transistor amplifier is of a Common Emitter Amplifier with the output signal 180º out of
phase with regards to the input signal. The additional 180º phase shift require for
oscillation is achieved by the fact that the two capacitors are connected together in series
but in parallel with the inductive coil resulting in overall phase shift of the circuit being
zero or 360º.
 The amount of feedback is determined by the ratio of C1 and C2. These two capacitances
are generally “ganged” together to provide a constant amount of feedback so that as one is
adjusted the other automatically follows.
 This oscillator is designed for the generation of high frequency sinusoidal oscillations with
the radio frequencies typically ranging from 10 KHz to 300MHz.
 The frequency of oscillations for a Colpitts oscillator is determined by the resonant
frequency of the LC tank circuit and is given as:
Figure 1: Colpitts Oscillator
Procedure:
1. Make a circuit as shown in figure 1. Select proper values of L1, C2 and C3.
2. Connect CRO at output terminals and observe the wave form.
3. Calculate practically the frequency of oscillations by using the expression.
1
𝑓 = 𝑇, where T= number of space × time/div
4. Repeat the above steps 2, 3 by varying one parameter at a time that is, L1, C2 and C3
respectively and note down the practical values of oscillations of Colpitts oscillator.
5. Compare the values of frequency of oscillations both theoretically and practically.
6. Also, calculate the gain ( A) .
L1 C2 C3 Theoretical frequency Practical frequency AV

(KHz) (KHz)
Review Questions:
 What is the general condition of oscillation?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
 What is the loop gain of an oscillator?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
 What is the difference between an amplifier and an oscillator?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
 What are the applications of a Colpitts Oscillator?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
 What is the difference between Saw tooth and Triangular wave?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
 What is the advantage of using this type of capacitive circuit configuration?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Task:
Imitate the Colpitts Oscillator by using an op-amp in multisim as shown below in figure 2.
Observe its principal characteristics by adjusting the gain of the op-amp using the feedback
resistors Ri and Rf that is, Av   Rf Ri
Figure 2: Colpitts Oscillator by using op-amp

Name: __________________________ Roll No: _________________________
LAB
INDICATOR
TOTAL 2 1 1 1 5
OBTAINED
To Understand the Operation of Hartley Oscillator

Learning Outcomes:
 Determine the operation of Hartley Oscillator.
 Determine the comparison between Hartley and Colpitts Oscillator.
 Replicate the given oscillator circuit using kit.

Oscilloscope Connecting Leads
F.B Trainer kit Probes
L.C tank
0  15 Power supply
Theory:
Hartley oscillator is very popular and is commonly used as a local oscillator in radio receivers.
The Hartley oscillator is an LC electronic oscillator that derives its feedback from a tapped coil in
parallel with a capacitor (the tank circuit). The tank circuit is made up of L1, L2, and C1. The coil
L1 is inductively coupled to coil L2, the combination of two functions acts as auto transformer.
The resistances R1 and R2 provide the necessary biasing. The capacitance C2 and C3 blocks the
d.c component. The frequency of oscillations is determined by the values of L1, L2 and C1 and is
given by,
1
fo 
2 C1( L1  L2)
Positive feedback can be earned by the mutual inductance between L1 of transistor output circuit
and L2 of base emitter input circuit. In CE circuit, the phase inversion of 180˚ occurs always
between the collector and the base voltage. Also, with the inductor tab connected to the emitter
(common terminal of transistor) as the base (L1-L2 combination), another phase inversion of 180˚
occurs at the opposite terminals of the inductor. Therefore, if these two are combined, the
feedback condition of same phase is realized, and the closed circuit gain is earned by Q1.
Figure 1: Hartley Oscillator
Advantages of the Hartley oscillator:

 The frequency may be adjusted using a single variable capacitor, one side of which can be
earthed.
 The output amplitude remains constant over the frequency range.
 Either a tapped coil or two fixed inductors are needed, and very few other components.
 Easy to create an accurate fixed-frequency crystal oscillator variation by replacing the
capacitor with a (parallel-resonant) quartz crystal or replacing the top half of the tank
circuit with a crystal and grid-leak resistor (as in the Tri-tet oscillator).
Disadvantages of the Hartley oscillator:

Harmonic-rich output if taken from the amplifier and not directly from the LC circuit (unless
amplitude-stabilization circuitry is employed).
Procedure:
1. Make a circuit as shown in figure 1. Select proper values of C1, L1 and L2.
1
𝑓 = 𝑇 , where T= number of space × time/div
4. Repeat the above steps 2, 3 by varying one parameter at a time that is, C1, L1 and L1
respectively and note down the practical values of oscillations of Hartley oscillator.
C1 L1 L2 Theoretical frequency Practical frequency AV

(KHz) (KHz)
Review Questions:
 One of the main disadvantages of the basic LC Oscillator circuit is that they have no
means of controlling the amplitude of the oscillations and also, it is difficult to tune the
oscillator to the required frequency. Consider the cases what happens if the cumulative
electromagnetic coupling between L1 and L2 is too small? Likewise, what happens if the
feedback is too strong?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
 Explain the process of Automatic Base Bias?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
 Which one is preferred more Hartley or Colpitts Oscillator? and why?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Task:
Imitate the Hartley Oscillator by using an op-amp in multisim as shown below in figure 2.
Observe its principal characteristics by adjusting the gain of the op-amp using the feedback
resistors Ri and Rf that is, Av   Rf Ri
Figure 2: Hartley Oscillator by using op-amp

Name: __________________________ Roll No: _________________________
LAB
INDICATOR
TOTAL 2 1 1 1 5
OBTAINED
To Understand the Operation of RC-Phase Shift Oscillator

Learning Outcomes:
 Introduce the concept of RC electronic oscillators.
 Determine the operation of Resistance-Capacitance oscillator.
 Replicate the given oscillator circuit using breadboard.

Oscilloscope Op-Amp IC
Bread Board Few Resistors
Connecting Leads
Theory:
As a single stage transistor amplifier can produce 180º of phase shift between its output and input
signals when connected in a class-A type configuration.
For an oscillator to sustain oscillations indefinitely, sufficient feedback of the correct phase, that
is “Positive Feedback” must be provided along with the transistor amplifier being used acting as
an inverting stage to achieve this.
 In a Resistance-Capacitance Oscillator or simply an RC Oscillator circuit the input is
shifted 180º through the amplifier stage and 180º again through a second inverting stage
giving us “180º + 180º = 360º” of phase shift which is effectively the same as 0º thereby
giving us the required positive feedback. In other words, the phase shift of the feedback
loop should be “0”.
 The basic RC Oscillator which is also known as a Phase-shift Oscillator, produces a sine
wave output signal using regenerative feedback obtained from the resistor-capacitor
combination. This regenerative feedback from the RC network is due to the ability of the
capacitor to store an electric charge, (similar to the LC tank circuit).
 This resistor-capacitor feedback network can be connected to produce a leading phase
shift (phase advance network) or interchanged to produce a lagging phase shift (phase
retard network) as shown below, the outcome is still the same as the sine wave oscillations
only occur at the frequency at which the overall phase-shift is 360o.
 By varying one or more of the resistors or capacitors in the phase-shift network, the
frequency can be varied and generally this is done by keeping the resistors the same and
using a 3-ganged variable capacitor.
 If all the resistors, R and the capacitors, C in the phase shift network are equal in value,
then the frequency of oscillations produced by the RC oscillator is given as:
Where:
ƒr is the Output Frequency in Hertz
R is the Resistance in Ohms
C is the Capacitance in Farads
N is the number of RC stages. (N = 3)
Figure 1: RC-Phase Shift Oscillator with phase retard network
Since the resistor-capacitor combination in the RC Oscillator circuit also acts as an attenuator
producing a total attenuation of -1/29th ( Vo/Vi = β ) across the three stages, the voltage gain of
the amplifier must be sufficiently high enough to overcome these RC losses.
The loading effect of the amplifier on the feedback network has an effect on the frequency of
oscillations and can cause the oscillator frequency to be up to 25% higher than calculated. Then
the feedback network should be driven from a high impedance output source and fed into a low
impedance load such as a common emitter transistor amplifier but better still is to use
an Operational Amplifier as it satisfies these conditions perfectly.
Figure 2: RC-Phase Shift Oscillator by using op-amp

Procedure:

1
4. Repeat the above steps 2, 3 by varying one parameter at a time that is, R, and C
respectively and note down the practical values of oscillations of RC-Phase Shift.
R C Theoretical frequency Practical frequency AV

(KHz) (KHz)
Review Questions:
 What is the difference between damped oscillations and undamped oscillations?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
 What are the drawbacks of RC phase shift oscillator?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
 Why three stages of RC network have been used in a way that the output voltage leads the
input voltage by an angle of about 60º as an ideal single-pole RC circuit would produce a
phase shift of exactly 90º. So what happens if two single-poles used in an RC oscillator in
order to give required 180º phase shift?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Task:
Imitate the RC-Phase Shift Oscillator by using transistor in multisim as shown below in figure 1.
Observe its principal characteristics.
Name: __________________________ Roll No: _________________________
LAB
INDICATOR
TOTAL 2 1 1 1 5
OBTAINED
To understand the operation of Wien-Bridge oscillators

Learning Outcomes:
 Determine the operation of Wien-Bridge oscillators.
 Determine the comparison between RC Phase-shift and Wien-Bridge Oscillator.
 Replicate the given oscillator circuit using breadboard.

Oscilloscope Op-Amp IC
Bread Board Few Resistors
Connecting Leads
Theory:
 The Wien Bridge Oscillator uses a RC network in place of the conventional LC tuned tank
circuit to produce a sinusoidal output waveform and is so called because the circuit is
based on a frequency-selective form of the Wheatstone bridge circuit.
 The Wien Bridge oscillator is a two-stage RC coupled amplifier circuit that has good
stability at its resonant frequency, low distortion and is very easy to tune making it a
popular circuit as an audio frequency oscillator but the phase shift of the output signal is
considerably different from the phase shift RC Oscillator.
 The Wien Bridge Oscillator uses a feedback circuit consisting of a series RC circuit (High
Pass Filter) connected with a parallel RC (Low Pass Filter) of the same component values
giving a very selective second-order frequency dependant Band Pass Filter with a
high Q factor at that selected frequency, ƒr. At the resonant frequency ƒr the phase shift is
0º. Consider the circuit below.
 At low frequencies the reactance of the series capacitor (C1) is very high so acts a bit like
an open circuit, blocking any input signal at Vin resulting in virtually no output
signal, Vout. Likewise, at high frequencies, the reactance of the parallel capacitor, (C 2)
becomes very low, so this parallel connected capacitor acts a bit like a short circuit across
the output, so again there is no output signal.
 So there must be a frequency point between these two extremes of C1 being open-circuited
and C2 being short-circuited where the output voltage, VOUT reaches its maximum value.
The frequency value of the input waveform at which this happens is called the
oscillators Resonant Frequency, (ƒr).
Figure 1: Wien-Bridge Oscillator

 At this resonant frequency, the circuit’s reactance equals its resistance, that is: Xc = R, and
the phase difference between the input and output equals zero degrees. The magnitude of
the output voltage is therefore at its maximum and is equal to one third (1/3) of the input
voltage as shown.
Figure 2: Wien-Bridge Oscillator Output Gain and Phase Shift
 It can be seen that at very low frequencies the phase angle between the input and output
signals is “Positive” (Phase Advanced), while at very high frequencies the phase angle
becomes “Negative” (Phase Delay). In the middle of these two points the circuit is at its
resonant frequency, (ƒr) with the two signals being “in-phase” or 0o. Therefore this
resonant frequency point can be defined with the following expression.
Where:
ƒr is the Resonant Frequency in Hertz
R is the Resistance in Ohms
C is the Capacitance in Farads
If we now place this RC network across a non-inverting amplifier which has a gain
of 1+R1/R2 the following basic Wien bridge oscillator circuit is produced.
Figure 2: Wien-Bridge Oscillator by using op-amp
Procedure:

1
4. Repeat the above steps 2, 3 by varying one parameter at a time that is, R, and C
respectively and note down the practical values of oscillations of Wien-Bridge.
R C Theoretical frequency Practical frequency AV

(KHz) (KHz)
Review Questions:
 Write applications of Wien Bridge Oscillators?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
 What are the limitations of Wien Bridge Oscillators?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
 Compare and contrast RC Phase-shift and Wien-Bridge Oscillator?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
 Why are LC circuits used more often than RC in demanding circuits?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Task:
Imitate the Wien-Bridge Oscillator by using transistor in multisim as shown below in figure 1.
Observe its principal characteristics.

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ROLL NO:

MEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Department of Telecommunication Engineering

Certified that Mr. /Miss. __________________________________

S/O/D/O ____________________________of 1st Semester 2nd Year of

the subject of AMPLIFIERS & OSCILLATORS as prescribed by the

Mehran University of Engineering & Technology, Jamshoro.

FET Small Signal Common Source Amplifier

To observe the Operating Characteristics of a Tuned Amplifier

To Understand the Operation of Colpitts Oscillator

Open Ended Lab

Score: _________ Signature of the Lab Tutor______________ Date: __________

Introduction to Electronic Circuit Design involving Multisim Simulation tool

Electronic Circuit Design:

Simulation Software & Breadboard:

To Place Components click on Place/Components. On the Select Component Window

Figure 2: Select Resistor Figure 3: Select DC voltage

Figure 4: DC Source & Resistors

To rotate the components right click on the Resistor to flip

Figure 5: Rotate Components

4. Place Wire/Connect Components:

Figure 6: Place/ Wire

5. Change Component Values:

To change component values double click

Figure 7: Change Component Values

The Voltmeter offers advantages over the

Figure 10: Voltmeter

The ammeter offers advantages over the multimeter

Figure 11: Ammeter

Use the Multimeter to measure AC or DC voltage

Figure 13: Measure Voltage Figure 14: Measure Current

Score: _________ Signature of the Lab Tutor______________ Date: __________

BJT Small Signal Common Emitter Amplifier

Required Equipment and Components:

Small Signal Amplifiers

Figure 2: Common Emitter Amplifier

1. It has moderately low input resistance (1 K to 2 K),

Transistor code: ________, Transistor type: ______ (PNP/NPN) RB = _____, RC = ________

Source Vi Vo Ii Io Zin Zout Av Ai AP Power gain

Without Bypass Capacitor:

Source Vi Vo Ii Io Zin Zout Av Ai AP Power gain

 What effect does By-pass capacitor have on the voltage gain?

 Why capacitors don’t take part in DC analysis?

 Why we need to know Input resistance to an amplifier?

a) Voltage Gain (Av):

b) Current Gain (Ai):

Score: _________ Signature of the Lab Tutor______________ Date: __________

BJT Small Signal Common Collector Amplifier

Required Equipment and Components:

Figure 2: Common Collector Amplifier

Transistor code: ________, Transistor type: ______ (PNP/NPN) RB = _____, RE = ________

Source Vi Vo Ii Io Zin Zout Av Ai AP Power gain

 Why CC amplifier is useful for impedance matching?

Score: _________ Signature of the Lab Tutor______________ Date: __________

BJT Small Signal Common Base Amplifier

Required Equipment and Components:

Figure 2: Common Base Amplifier

Transistor code: ________, Transistor type: ______ (PNP/NPN) RE = _____, RC =

Source Vi Vo Ii Io Zin Zout Av Ai AP Power gain

Score: _ Signature of the Lab Tutor Date: ____

Score: _ Signature of the Lab Tutor Date: ____

Transistor code: ____, Transistor type: (PNP/NPN) RB = _, RC = ______

Score: _ Signature of the Lab Tutor Date: ____

Transistor code: ____, Transistor type: (PNP/NPN) RB = _, RE = ______

Score: _ Signature of the Lab Tutor Date: ____

Transistor code: __, Transistor type: (PNP/NPN) RE = _, RC =

Score: _ Signature of the Lab Tutor Date: ____

Transistor code: __, Transistor type: RG = _, RD = ______ RS =

Score: _ Signature of the Lab Tutor Date: ____

Score: _ Signature of the Lab Tutor Date: ____

Score: _ Signature of the Lab Tutor Date: ____

Score: _ Signature of the Lab Tutor Date: ____

Score: _ Signature of the Lab Tutor Date: ____

Score: _ Signature of the Lab Tutor Date: ____