CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the related literatures and studies of work

performance and work commitment among government internship

program (GIP) beneficiaries as key indicators for work opportunities. This

would also present the theoretical and conceptual framework to

understand the research and lastly the definition of terms for better

comprehension of the study.

Work Performance

The review of literature includes information from various sources

such as peer- reviewed articles, studies, guidelines, and websites on

concepts related to work performance is "The achievement achieved by

someone in carrying out the tasks and work given to him". Emphasize that

performance is a multidimensional concept which distinguishes between

task and contextual performance (Martha, 2015). A motivation strategy is

necessary for conducting the daily tasks and motivating employees with

common goals. It is not only a decision or simple words used to describe

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the goal, but also using a set of skills to achieve it (Palmer, 2005).

Motivation process follows certain defined steps, which, as a continuum

needs to be periodically reviewed and strategized to ensure its proper

renewal. This helps to maintain the motivation of employees (Green,

2000).

Work performance in organizations need highly performing

individuals in order to meet their goals, to deliver the products and

services they specialized in, and finally to achieve competitive advantage.

Work motivation is a topic of crucial importance to the success of

organizations and societies and the well-being of individuals (Kanfer,

2017).

Performance is also important for the individual. Accomplishing

tasks and performing at a high level can be a source of satisfaction, with

feelings of mastery and pride. Low performance and not achieving the

goals might be experienced as dissatisfying or even as a personal failure.

This diversity of uses is well documented in a study of why companies use

performance appraisals (Frese, 2017). Workers absenteeism, another key

negative variable in this area, can create difficulties for team colleagues

and for wider organizational success, especially when a person’s non-

attendance is unexpected or long-lasting. Research problems can arise in

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separating medically-prescribed periods of involuntary absence from those

which might result more from a worker’s personal choice (Johns &

Miraglia, 2015).

If individuals are promotion-focused, they seek positive outcomes,

and if individuals are prevention-focused, they try to avoid negative

outcomes. Avoiding distractions during goal pursuit matched the behavior

of someone with a prevention focus better than someone with a

promotion focus and simply being in a prevention focus when completing

a task could increase an individual’s task enjoyment and performance

when distractions were present (Leung, 2015). Human capital theory

suggests that performance should improve over time, because employees

accumulate job experience, which provides them with more knowledge,

skills, and abilities to apply to their work. In contrast, motivation and job

design theories suggest that greater time in a role reduces employee

motivation and engagement, resulting in poorer performance. Employee

performance within a given role before the employee moves into a new

position. Yet the relationship between tenure and performance is not

always clear. Two contrasting theoretical approaches underpin this

relationship (Bartlomiejczuk & Jin, 2015).

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Duties and Functions

Assist and perform duties that are not highly-technical in nature

such as profiling, encoding, assisting and other functions assigned by the

government or GIP partners. The Government Internship Program shall

prescribe standard internship plans for applying interns to ensure that

their duties are confined to official tasks only (Bello III, 2019). In

conjunction, develop an internship plan outlining the scope and limitations

of the interns' duties for the duration of the internship (Hontiveros, 2019).

They perform various government tasks such as profiling, encoding,

assisting and other functions. It is a good stepping stone for beneficiaries

to learn and experience the real world of government (Bello III, 2019).

Interns shall not be obligated to do work outside of this internship plan.

Internship Contract that will be an official and binding document stating

the duties and responsibilities of all parties, the duties prescribed in the

internship plans, and the agreed upon remuneration agreements between

the agency and the intern. As such, interns are hired for official purposes

only and are prohibited from taking tasks that go beyond official duties

(Hontiveros, 2019).

Deontological concepts as rights, duties, equality and norms have

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been widely analysed in political economics, institutional economics, socio-

economics and ecological economics. Often it is analysed in the context of

the free trade - anti-dumping law and monopoly restrictive trade practices

these are examples of deontology ethics, universal morality norms that

are promoted by the law (Van Staveren, 2007). A worker might feel

obliged to reciprocate in a positive way to benefits provided by the

employer. The worker interprets these benefits as signals of recognition

for past performance, trust in his work morale or consideration for his

work-life balance. The worker might feel some basic interchange by

getting a job offer with an interesting task from the employer. Depending

on the individual type of worker, these equal feelings can increase if a

worker obtains autonomy over his working time, so that he exerts even

more extra effort compared to a situation alternatively. A committed

worker feels responsible for the produced output and obtains an extra

utility when being successful (Bloom & Van Reenen, 2011).

Dependability

Dependability is an important attribute to look out for in an em-

ployee as it increases a wide variety of tasks. A dependable employee not

only shows up for work on time every day but also produces consistent
 16

work. Gradually, they become an essential team player in the company as

they build a strong working relationship; not only with management but

with their colleagues as well (Bradley & Stephens, 2005). Job satisfaction

has always remained a variable of key interest to all the managers in a

global setting. Today almost all managers are of the view that job satis-

faction should be given a huge attention because it is an employee’s satis-

faction with his/her job that drives him/her to form an attitude which is

linked to the organizational outcomes (Saari & Judge, 2004).

Performance does not necessarily depend on only one individual’s

activities, we should also consider the team environment when assessing

an individual’s performance (Steffens et al., 2014). Given that the

dominant problem frame among policy makers and managers is the frame

of self-determination, it should come as no surprise that care

professionals, too, appear to engage with dependency as such.

Dependency was something care professionals wanted to avoid or at least

limit, in favour of self-determination (Delmar, 2013). A team leader’s

organizational tenure has been found to have incremental positive

influences on employee performance, albeit at diminishing rates.

Furthermore, a team’s organizational tenure diversity also positively

impacts employee performance, such that the more diverse the

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organizational tenure of a team to which an employee belongs, the better

that employee will perform. These effects positively influence team

member performance above and beyond the benefits of their own tenure

(Steffens et al., 2014).

Skills Enhancement

The theory for fostering skill development outcomes can be used

for fostering all types of skills. Romiszowski defines skill as “the capacity

to perform a given type of task or activity with a given degree of

effectiveness, efficiency, speed or other measure of quantity or quality. He

distinguishes between intellectual skills that involve the mind, motor,

sensorimotor, or psychomotor skills that involve the body, personal skills

that involve emotions, and interpersonal skills that involve interacting with

others. Skill is distinct from knowledge, in that it develops with experience

and practice, whereas knowledge is something you either have or do not

have (Romiszowski, 2009). Technical skills may be skills but human skills

are better defined as soft skills, or behaviours. Many people in the field of

leadership development are trying to teach leadership which is half skills

and half behaviours as a set of skills that can be learned (Plant, 2013).
 18

Soft skills and competencies are professionalism, reliability, the

ability to cope with uncertainty, the ability to work under pressure, the

ability to plan and think strategically (Andrews & Higson, 2008). The

collaborative compilation of what may be termed ideal generic skills and

competencies required of graduates in the workplace. The growing

graduate market shaped the employers’ perspectives and expectations

(Poutvaara, 2013).

Communication

The capability to communicate and interact with others, either in

teams or through networking, good written and verbal communication

skills, information and communication technology skills, creativity and self-

confidence, good self-management and time-management skills, a

willingness to learn and accept responsibility (Andrews & Higson, 2008).

The skills and competencies for the purposes of defining graduate

employability, the essential link between graduate skills and competencies

and the needs of the labor market was considered of paramount

importance (Trunk, Nastav, Lesjak & Sulcic, 2006).

The investment should also be used to improve human resource

quality by providing free education and training for unemployment. Free

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education and training that provides by the government can be lead to

reduce unemployment because there will be minimized mismatch between

the job seeker and job availability kind of education that can be provided

by the government like informal education such as language education to

rise communication between the community (Lee & Liu, 2011). Effective

communication relies on selecting an appropriate communication channel.

Selecting the wrong communication channel can cause communication

obstacles including information overload and inadequate feedback (Fenell,

2017).

Work Commitment

The Affective Commitment Scale (ACS), the Normative

Commitment Scale (NCS) and the Continuance Commitment Scale (CCS).

Each is scored separately and can be used to identify the “commitment

profile” of employees within an organization (Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch

& Topolnytsky, 2004). Mainly, Work Commitment has been suggested to

partly explain various behaviors in organizations. Practical support has

been found for a negative relationship between organizational

commitment and subsequent withdrawal behavior, such as job turnover

(Farkas, 2009).
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Along with an escalating interest in how individuals get motivated

in the employment situation. Furthermore, job involvement has been

shown to have a positive effect on work effort (Brown, 2010), and a high

level of union commitment has been linked to participation in union

activities (Kelloway, 2010). Strengthening of individuals’ attachment to the

organization and to the job would have positive consequences for their

work motivation, and negative effects on their withdrawal behavior (Perry

& Hur, 2019).

Commitment which posits failure to meet expectations as an initial

‘shock’ that causes an initial decline in commitment, but then commitment

rebounds as the employee absorbs the shock and adapts to the new

reality by adjusting those expectations (Maia, Bastos & Solinger, 2016).

Interest in work commitment flows from its linkage with a variety of

important employee and organizational outcomes, such as turnover,

citizenship behaviors, absenteeism, and tardiness as well as how it relates

to similar concepts such as employee identification, job embeddedness,

employee engagement, and job satisfaction (Jaros, 2009).

Work commitment can be interpreted, as employee loyalty to the

extent of employee self-recognition at work and his wishes to continue the

inclusion of his activities in the organization where he is. Work

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commitment is one's tendency to involve oneself in what is done with the

belief that the activities undertaken are important and meaningful. Both

opinions above basically have the same view of commitment, which is the

phase or level of employee attachment to their duties (Feldman, 2020).

People who have work commitments have the following

characteristics have the initiative to overcome problem that arise, directly

related to him even those related to the association, emotionally nuanced,

make individual and organizational goals one or the same so that they feel

a strong attachment to the organization or its work, are willing to make

sacrifices or sacrifice for the benefit of the task or organization if

necessary, have a strategic vision that is not selfish, work earnestly even

without direct rewards, feel as an owner or view yourself as an owner so

that every task is completed as quickly and as well as possible, has a clear

mission statement and vision as a picture what will be achieved, and has

self-awareness with a clear feeling that work is not a burden, but is a

pleasure or hobby that is done. The characteristics above are

determinants that a person has a commitment in carrying out the work

(Goleman, 2020).

Meanwhile several characteristics of people who have work

commitments in the organization, has high trust and support for values
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and work, has a sincere desire to try to carry out work in the organization,

have a desire to carry out work well and maintain organizational expertise,

have a strong desire to remain a member of the organization, a

willingness to continue doing their best for the interests of the

organization, and strong trust and acceptance of organizational values and

goals (Joseph, 2020).

The organizational experiences generally, not necessarily confined

to job-related skills, enhance the employee’s sense of self-efficacy and

self-worth. Personal related individual growth, we would develop a

measure that assesses how organizational experiences generally. Clearly,

this sense of personal competence and self-worth would also be a product

of non-work experiences and education, but our goal would be to tap

those aspects that are directly related to work (Jaros, 2009).

Affective Commitment

Affective commitment is considered to be a key aspect of the

individual's social identification (Ellemers, 2011). A proposed three

components contribute to one's social identification, self-categorization a

cognitive awareness of one's membership in a social group, self-esteem,

an evaluative component a positive or negative value connotation

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attached to this group membership and affective commitment, an

emotional component (Bergami & Bagozzi, 2000).

One’s commitment to their current organization will depend, in

part,

on the perception that the organization is also educating them for

employment options with other organizations. The development of these

competences may not lead to career development but will lead to self-

satisfaction with one's own development, the sense that one has a high

level of self-efficacy (Weng et al., 2010). Developed a dimensional

concept of commitment that defines commitment in terms of volition,

dedication, and responsibility towards one’s organization, or to aspects of

the organization such as work team and supervisor (Klein et al., 2014).

Commitment is the consistent attitude of individuals towards the

organization in which they work. This attitude is an individual's consistent

attitude towards his involvement with the job or task for which he is

responsible and they are interested in keeping their jobs and duties

(Greenberg & R. A. B., 2020).

Work commitment is one's acceptance of the value of work or the

chosen occupation, and the desire to maintain a position in this task.

Commitment exists when humans have the opportunity to determine what

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will be done. Commitment to work is conceptualized as a psychological

relationship between people and the work involved based on affective

reactions to the job (Anthony, 2009).

Continuance Commitment

Continuance commitment is related to costs that an individual has

to bear when leaving an organization. According to the research

suggestions, continuance commitment tends to have a positive

relationship with all negative factors such as stress. These employees go

beyond what it takes, to stay with an organization and easily become

deviant (Ackerman, 2013). People who are committed to work, will work

totally in the organization by giving all their attention, thought, energy

and time to work to achieve optimum results. Commitment has a

relationship with loyalty, obedience and job satisfaction in the

organization. Highly committed people are more concerned with work and

tasks in meeting organizational needs than personal needs (Robbins,

2003).

Normative Commitment
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Normative commitment, or employees’ loyalty to their organization

based on a sense of obligation, has received less attention than affective

and continuance commitment. Building on recent work suggesting that

normative commitment’s meaning is influenced by the within-person

context provided by the other components of commitment, we theorized

that normative commitment would be experienced as externally driven,

hence detrimental to well-being and performance, when few alternatives

commitment, a sub-component of continuance commitment, is high

(Addae & Parboteeah, 2006).

Employees who want to stay tend to perform at a higher level than

those who do not . Employees who remain out of obligation as high

normative commitment scale also tend to out-perform those who feel no

such obligation as low normative commitment scale, but the effect on

performance is not as strong as that observed for desire. So, not all

commitments are alike for summaries of the empirical evidence (Meyer et

al., 2004). Commitment to the organization itself like occupation,

supervisor, work team, customer and inquire as to whether it is

appropriate to simply replace “organization” in the commitment items with

a descriptor of the relevant target. The importance of acknowledging the

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multi-dimensionality of all workplace commitments but do not advocate

this simple target substitution approach (Meyer et al., 2004).

Work Opportunity

Furthermore, work opportunity is a mechanism used by the

management to supervise and control the direction of the organization.

Therefore, the efficiency and effectiveness of opportunity is very

important for an organization that uses work opportunity as a basis

development plan and improvement. In order to achieve good results,

opportunity should be comprehensive, dynamic and strategic (Henri &

Boiral, 2017). It is one of the few constants in a maelstrom of

technological, economic and social change. As better credentials are

believed to lead to good jobs and higher rewards, at the same time

offering an efficient and fair means of selection based on individual

achievement and credentials are the currency of opportunity (Brown,

2017).

It can be solved to some extent if they pay great amount of

attention to nourish the education for the world of work. In addition,

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youth of the country requires preparation for the employment to thrive

with participation in nation building (Hussain, 2005).

Today employment is the rising up agenda. Higher education is

reshaping its objectives to support learners for careers, opportunities,

progressive employment, training for working world and better

understandings with their capacities (John & Moyer, 2014).

Higher education helps the students to build employability skills

now, which means that of enabling students to get and keep a job, allow

them to bring changes of working world, and similar proficiency for

development (Nasir & Nazli, 2000). Higher education by developing

understandings with changing trends of world of the work enables the

learners to investigate the career opportunities. With this aim, every

learner has some expectation with their high qualification to raise their

achievements of Life, they plan their long or short-term goals for future

work (Pages & Stampini, 2007).

The National Council on Disability Affairs states that ‘publishers are

encouraged to give sufficient attention to this heading because these

career-related possibilities can be acted on immediately and thus have

high motivational value (Cedefop, 2016). In recent decades, the growth in

personal freedoms and high-skilled jobs has led many to believe that it
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have more opportunities that ever before and to exploit the talents of all

(Brown, 2017).

Experience as a result of participating in an internship. It is

important to note that student outcomes include not only employment

opportunities or wages, but also non-economic factors such as job

satisfaction, academic achievement, and career crystallization (Margaryan

et al., 2020). There exists some contradictory evidence on this point of

employability, especially whether internships improve not only immediate

employability upon graduation but long-term employment prospects

(Nunley et al., 2016).

In utilising the competencies for the purposes of defining graduate

employability, the intrinsic link between graduate skills and competencies

and the needs of the labour market (Trunk et al., 2006).

Work experience constituted an important consideration for

employers in when recruiting graduates. Part time employment was also

perceived positively because it provided evidence that graduates were

willing to work hard to achieve their goals and were able to balance

employment and study (Broadbridge & Swanson, 2005).

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Conceptual Framework

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

WORK PERFORMANCE

 Duties and Functions

 Dependability

 Skills Enhancement
WORK
 Communication OPPORTUNITIES

WORK COMMITMENT

 Affective commitment

 Continuance commitment

 Normative commitment
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Figure 1. Schematic Diagram Showing the Relationship of the Independent

and the Dependent variables.

The diagram shows that the dimensions of work performance such

as the duties and functions, dependability, skills enhancement, and com-

munication, as well as the domain of work commitment such as affective

commitment, continuance commitmen, and normative commitment (inde-

pendent variables) may influence the Work Opportunity (dependent vari-

able) among Government Internship Program (GIP) beneficiaries in the

municipality of Malita, Davao Occidental.

Hypothesis

In this study, the following null hypothesis was tested at 0.05 level

of significance.

Ho1: There was no significant relationship between work performance

and work opportunity.

Ho2: There was no significant relationship between work commitment

and work opportunity.