Biodiversity (biological diversity)

• Variety of life found on Earth.

• Measured by species richness (count of species in an area).

• Species is a group of actually or potentially interbreeding organisms. Members of the species

are similar enough to each other to produce fertile offspring together.

About 2.1 million species have been identified till date, while many more species are believed to exist.

According to UNEP (1993-94) (UN convention on environment protection) estimate, the total number of species that
might exist on Earth range between 9.0 – 52 million.

BIODIVERSITY, in general terms, comprises the variability of all life forms present on the Earth including all
the fauna and flora species present on the planet. To be more specific, it denotes the total species present in a
specific ecosystem. All the species on Earth compete with each other for ensuring their survival while living
together in the same ecosystem with each other. It has been estimated that about 8.7 million species of flora
and fauna are currently in existence on the Planet Earth of which only 1.2 million species have been
discovered so far and still a lot more is yet to be discovered as many of the Earth’s rich biodiversity areas are
still unexplored.
Value of Biodiversity

1.Environmental values
2.Social values
3.Ecosystem services
4.Economic values
5.Value of consumptive use
6.Value of productive use
7.Moral and ethical values
8.Aesthetic values
1. Environmental Value:
The environmental value of biodiversity can be found by examining each ecosystem process and identifying the
ecosystem services that result. For instance, in wetlands the vegetation captures water- carried sediment and the
soil organisms break down a range of nutrients and pollutants washed into the area.\
These processes provide the ecosystem service of purifying water. Wetlands also act as spawning and nursery
grounds for some fish and provide a refuge for animals in times of drought.

2. Social Value:
The social value of biodiversity includes aesthetic, recreational, cultural and spiritual values. To this can be added
health benefits resulting from recreational and other activities. While traditional societies which had a small
population and required less resources had preserved their biodiversity as a life supporting resource, modern
man has rapidly depleted it even to the extent of leading to the irrecoverable loss due to extinction of several
species.
Thus apart from the local use or sale of products of biodiversity there is the social aspect in which more and more
resources are used by affluent societies. The biodiversity has to a great extent been preserved by traditional
societies that valued it as a resource and appreciated that its depletion would be a great loss to their society.

3. Ecosystem service includes:

a. The production of oxygen;
b. The maintenance of fresh water quality by vegetation slowing run off, trapping sediment and removing
nutrients and by soil organisms breaking down pollutants;
c. The production and maintenance of fertile soil as a result of many interacting processes;
d. The provision of foods such as fish, pastures for cattle and sheep, timber, fire wood and harvested wildlife such as
kangaroos and native cut flowers;
e. The provision of native species and genes used in industry research and development, for instance, in traditional
breeding and biotechnology applications in agriculture, forestry, horticulture, mariculture, pharmacy, chemicals
production and bioremediation;
f. Pollination of agricultural crops, forest trees and native flowering plants by native insects, birds and other creatures;
g. Pest control in agricultural land by beneficial native predators;
h. Flood mitigation by vegetation slowing run off and trapping sediment;
Breakdown of pollutants by micro-organisms in soil and aquatic ecosystems and sequestration of heavy metals in marin
and fresh water sediments;
j. Greenhouse gas reduction by, for instance, sequestering atmospheric carbon in wood and marine calcium carbonate
deposits;
k. Maintenance of habitats for native plants and animals; and
l. Maintenance of habitats that are attractive to humans for recreation, tourism and cultural activities and that has
spiritual importance.
4. Economic Value:
The economic potential of biodiversity is immense in terms of food, fodder, medicinal, ethical and social
values. Biodiversity forms the major resource for different industries, which govern the world economy.
1. The major fuel sources of the world including wood and fossil fuels have their origin due to biodiversity.
2. It is the source of food for all animals and humans.
3. Many important chemicals have their origin from the diverse flora and fauna, used in various
industries.
4. Diverse group of animals are used for medical research during the testing of new drugs.

5. Consumptive use value:

This is related to natural products that are used directly for food, fodder, timber, fuel wood etc. Humans use
at least 40,000 species of plants and animals on a daily basis. Many people around the world still depend on
wild species for most of their needs like food, shelter and clothing. The tribal people are completely
dependent on the forests for their daily needs.
6. Productive Use Value:
This is assigned to products that are commercially harvested and marketed. Almost all the present date
agricultural crops have originated from wild varieties. The biotechnologists continuously use the wild
species of plants for developing new, better yielding and disease resistant varieties. Biodiversity represents
the original stock from which new varieties are being developed.
7. Ethical and Moral Value:

It is based on the principle of ‘live and let others live’. Ethical values related to biodiversity conservation are based on the
importance of protecting all forms of life. All forms of life have the right to exist on earth. Man is only a small part of the Earth’s
great family of species.
Don’t plants and animals have an equal right to live and exist on our planet which is like an inhabited spaceship? Morality and
ethics teach us to preserve all forms of life and not to harm any organism unnecessarily.
Some people take pleasure in the hunting of animals. People also sometimes degrade and pollute the environment by their
unethical actions. Through proper education and awareness, the people’s conscience against such practices must be raised.

Scientific value or Educational value

Biodiversity is of great scientific value. Many species of plants and animals are the subjects of our research. We use many
species for research and in turn get a lot of knowledge from their study. Through research on plants, insects and animals we
find better ways of making medicines, hybrid plants, engineering designs and many other things that are of immense value
to human beings. For example, the design of Velcro is developed from cockle-burrs which cling fast to clothing as we walk in
the woods.
Importance of Conservation of Biodiversity

Ecological Importance
1.Conservation of biodiversity is important to get pure air and water.
2.It creates habitat and shelter for many animals and native species.
3.It provides healthy soil for agriculture and controls soil erosion.
4.Conservation of biodiversity also helps to preserve many species which are about to go extinct.
5.It prevents deforestation.
6.It helps to control pollution.
7.It also controls sudden climate change.
8.It provides natural beauty to our planet.

Economic Importance
1.It gives us an abundance of food products that are available in the ecosystem.
2.It helps to get timber, honey, rubber etc. and many more products from the ecosystem.
3.It also helps in getting medicines from the ecosystem.
4.It plays an important role in the development of tourism.
5.It controls the exploitation of natural resources.
6.It helps in getting resources for construction.
7.It helps in agricultural development.
Levels of Biodiversity

Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity refers to the diversity of the gene pool of a given species, or diversity at the DNA level.

For example, if a deadly disease strikes a population, high levels of genetic diversity increase the likelihood that there are
members of the population who are less affected by the disease. By protecting a portion of the population, genetic diversity
can prevent the population from going extinct.

Species Diversity

Species diversity is not only based on the number of different species present in a community, but also the relative abundance
of each species and the role they have in the community. It is the biodiversity seen within a community. It signifies the number
and distribution of species.

Ecosystem diversity

This refers to variability in habitats within a geographic area. It is the diversity seen between the ecosystems in a region.
Several ecosystems like rainforests, deserts, mangroves, etc., show a vast diversity of life forms living in them.
• Alpha diversity: It refers to the diversity of species found in a particular area or ecosystem, and is usually expressed by the
number of species in that ecosystem.

• Beta diversity: It refers to the comparison of the diversity of species between two or more ecosystems, usually measured as
the change in the number of species between the ecosystems. It is the sum of species unique to each area

• Gamma diversity: It is the measure of the overall diversity for the different ecosystems in a region. It is highly subjective
because of different perceptions about the boundaries of the region.
•Alpha diversity
•Habitat X has 5 species of ants - Therefore, the alpha diversity for ants in this place is 5

•Beta diversity
• Habitat 1 has 4 species: a, b, c, and d (alpha diversity = 4)
• Habitat 2 has 3 species: c, d, and e (alpha diversity = 3)
• To calculate the beta diversity, you subtract the number of overlapping species of each habitat’s alpha diversity and
sum the results:
• (4 species on habitat 1 - 2 overlapping species) + (3 species on habitat 2 - 2 overlapping species) = (4–2)+(3–2) = 2+1
=3
• The beta diversity between habitats 1 and 2 is 3

•Gamma diversity
•The gamma diversity of the region with habitats 1 and 2 from the last question would be 5, since that there were 5 species
on habitats 1 and 2: a, b, c, d, and e.
Threats to Biodiversity
Habitat Loss
Habitat loss is considered a primary cause of modern declines in global biodiversity.

Habitat fragmentation
The division of habitat into small and scattered patches is called habitat fragmentation. This leads to the loss of most
wildlife

Invasive Species
Introduction of species to new habitats. Introduced species that dominate their new habitats are known as invasive
species.

In its native habitat in the Pacific, lionfish populations are regulated by predators, preventing lionfish from over-
consuming smaller fish on a reef. However, in the Caribbean, lionfish have no natural predators. As a result, lionfish
are taking over reef ecosystems and threatening native species with extinction.
Illegal trade
Illegal trade of wildlife reduces biodiversity.

Developmental activities
Construction of dams in forest areas coupled with the discharge of industrial effluents kills birds and other
aquatic life.

Poaching of wildlife
Killing of animals or commercial hunting.
Poaching can be of two types :
• Subsistence poaching: This refers to killing animals for food.
• Commercial poaching: This refers to hunting animals in order to sell their products.

•Raw material
Wild plants are used as raw materials, leading to extinction of many wild plant species.

• Production of drugs
Drug companies utilize wild plants for the production of drugs leading to extinction of several medicinal plant
species.
Climate change
Humans have caused the planet to warm by around 1 degree Celsius since pre-industrial times – and
biodiversity is already bearing the brunt of that warming. Climate change is reducing the distribution of many
species (the geographical area in which they can survive), including almost half of all endangered mammals.
Many plants and animals are also experiencing disruptions to their phenology, which refers to seasonal life
cycle events such as flowering, migration and hibernation.

Pollution
Mining, agriculture, industry and other pervasive changes in human’s land-use are contributing to air, water and
soil pollution. Coastal waters contain the highest levels of metals and organic pollutants, such as industrial
discharge and fertilizers.
Similarly, marine plastic pollution has increased tenfold since 1980, primarily affecting marine turtles, seabirds
and marine mammals, as well as humans indirectly through the food chain.
Biodiversity at Global Level:

Around 1.74 million species (about 179, 80,000 species) of animals, plants, fungi and microorganisms are currently known
to exist, although estimates suggest that the actual number could be much higher.

Out of which, 16, 04,000 species of Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.

The region closer to the Equator has greater biodiversity. At least 40,000 different plant species live in the
Amazon rainforest of South America, one of the most biologically diverse regions on the planet. Only about 2,800 live in
Canada’s Quebec province.

The warm waters of the western Pacific and Indian Oceans tend show great marine biodiversity. The Bird’s Head Seascape in
Indonesia is home to more than 1,200 species of fish and 600 species of coral. Many of the corals build coral reefs, which are
home to hundreds more species, from tiny seaweeds to large sharks.

Cape Floristic Region in South Africa is home to about 6,200 plant species found nowhere else in the world.
Table 1.1 Estimated numbers of described species, and possible global total.

Kingdoms Described species Estimated total species

Bacteria 4 000 1 000 000
Protoctists (algae, 80 000 600 000
protozoa, etc)
Animals 1 320 000 10 600 000
Fungi 70 000 1 500 000
Plants 270 000 300 000
TOTAL 1 744 000 ca.14 000 000
Greater Biodiversity in the Tropics

The centers of greatest biodiversity tend to be in the tropics.

• Tropical areas receive more solar energy over the year. Therefore, tropical communities are more productive
resulting in a greater number of species.

• Warm temperatures and high humidity of tropical areas provide favourable environmental conditions for many
species.

• Local species thrive and live in tropics, whereas, those in temperate zones tend to disperse to other areas.

• In tropics, the greater pressure from pests, parasites and diseases does not allow any single species to
dominate. Thus, there is opportunity for many species to coexist. In temperate areas, there is reduced pressure
from pests, parasites and diseases due to cold, and there is one or a few dominating species that exclude
many other species.

• In tropics, higher rates of out crossing among plants may lead to higher levels of genetic variability.
India as Mega-Diverse Biodiversity

•India is one of the 12 mega-diversity nations of the world.

•India has a rich biodiversity, covering a wide variety of habitats from tropical rainforests to high-altitude vegetation and from
temperate forests to coastal wetlands.

•India contains about 7 to 8% of the world’s biodiversity on 2% of the Earth’s surface.

•India has regions of almost all kinds of climatic conditions from tropical to alpine and from desert to humid.

•India in the tenth position in the world and fourth in the Asia in plant diversity.

In terms of number of mammalian species, the country ranks tenth in the world

In terms of endemic species of higher vertebrates, it ranks eleventh.

In terms of number of species contributed to agriculture and animal husbandry, it ranks seventh in the world.

India holds eleventh number because of endemic species as vertebrates (amphibia, birds and mammals).

India is home to 33% of the plants and animals found in the world.
INDIA MEGA DIVERSE LANDSCAPE
• Geological events in India's landmass have created ideal conditions for biological diversity.

• Tectonic movements later shifted India northward across the equator, bringing it into contact with the
Northern Eurasian continent.

• Plants and animals that had evolved in Europe and the Far East migrated into India before the Himalayas
formed as the intervening shallow Tethys Sea dried up.

• India's unique geographic location between three distinct centres of biological evolution and species
radiation, we have a diverse and rich biodiversity.

• India is one of the top 15 biologically diverse countries in the world, with a wide range of plants and
animals, many of which are found nowhere else.
BIODIVERSITY IN INDIA
• India has 350 different mammalian species (ranked eighth in the world), 1,200 bird species (ranked eighth in
the world), 453 reptile species (ranked fifth in the world), and 45,000 plant species, the majority of which are
angiosperms (fifteenth in the world).

• Ferns (1022 species) and orchids have particularly high species diversity (1082 species).

• India is home to 50,000 insect species, including 13,000 butterflies and moths. The number of unknown
species is estimated to be several times higher.

• It is estimated that 18 per cent of Indian plants are endemic to the country, meaning they can only be found
there.

• Flowering plants have a much higher degree of endemism than other plant species, with a third of them
being found nowhere else on the planet.

• 62 per cent of the amphibians found in India are unique to the country. In the case of lizards, 50 per cent of
the 153 species found are endemic. Insects, marine worms, centipedes, mayflies, and freshwater sponges have
all been found to have high endemism.
Aside from the high biodiversity of Indian wild plants and animals, the country also has a wide range of
cultivated crops and livestock breeds. This is the result of the Indian subcontinent's civilizations evolving and
flourishing over thousands of years.

• Rice varieties ranging from 30,000 to 50,000, as well as cereals, vegetables, and fruit, were among the
traditional cultivars. The highest diversity of cultivars can be found in the Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats,
Northern Himalayas, and North-Eastern hills, which receive a lot of rain.

• Over 34,000 cereals and 22,000 pulses grown in India have been collected by gene banks. India has 27
indigenous cattle breeds, 40 sheep breeds, 22 goat breeds, and 8 buffalo breeds. The forests of the Northeast
and the Western Ghats, which are among the world's most bio-diverse areas, are our internationally
recognized national "hot spots."

• Many subspecies of different animals and birds have evolved on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which
are extremely rich in species. Large proportions of endemic species, or those found only in India, are
concentrated in these three areas.

• There are 2200 species of flowering plants and 120 species of ferns in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
alone.
• In India, 85 (63%) of the 135 land mammal genera are found in the Northeast.

• There are 1,500 endemic plant species in the Northeast States.

• The Western Ghats are home to a large number of amphibian and reptile species, particularly snakes,
as well as over 1,500 endemic plant species.

• Coral reefs surround the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Lakshadweep Islands, and the Gulf areas of
Gujarat and Tamil Nadu in Indian waters. They are nearly as diverse as tropical evergreen forests in terms
of species!
• India has at present 89,317 species of fauna and 45,364 species of flora representing about 7.31% of the world
fauna and 10.88% the world flora described so far.

• 84 percent species constitute fungi (21.2 percent), flowering plants (13.9 percent), Insect (49.3 percent).

• India has over 108,276 species of bacteria, fungi, plants and animals identified and described.

• In plants, the species richness is high in angiosperms, bryophyta and petridophyta, and in the family
orchidaceae. In animals, arthropoda (insects) are predominant.

•India has 26 endemic centres that are home to nearly a third of all the flowering plants (angiosperms).
Eastern Himalayas are extremely rich in endemic plant species. In Sikkim about 4300 plant species are
found of which 60% are endemic.
•Species that are found only in a particular region are known as endemic species. Western Ghats: It
extends along forests in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala and has 40% of the total
endemic plant species. 62% amphibians and 50% lizards are endemic to Western Ghats.
•India has six Ramsar Wetlands. Chilika Lake, Harike Lake, Loktak Lake, Keoladeo National Park, Wular Lake and Sambhar
Lake.

•India has 5 world heritage sites namely, Kaziranga National Park, Keolades Ghana National Park, Manas Wildlife Sanctuary,
Nanda Devi National Park and Sundarban National Park.

•Further, amongst the protected areas, there are 88 national parks and 490 sanctuaries in India covering an area of 1.53 lakh
sq.km.
India has167 crop species and wild relatives.

• India is one of the 12 centres of origin of cultivated plants.

• India is considered to be the centre of origin of 30,000 to 50,000 varieties of rice, pigeon-pea, mango,
turmeric, ginger, sugarcane, gooseberries, etc. and ranks seventh in terms of contribution to world
agriculture.

India is rich in marine biodiversity

• The most productive ecosystems such as mangrooves, estivaries, lagoons and coral reefs.

• Over 30 species of marine algae and 14 species of seagrass have been reported.

• There are over 45 species of mangrove plants.

• Over 342 species of corals belonging to 76 genera have been reported and about 50% of the world’s reef
building corals are found in India.
BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS

• In 1988, British biologist Norman Myers coined the term "biodiversity hotspot" to describe a
biogeographic region with both high levels of plant endemism and significant habitat loss.

• Myers added eight more hotspots in 1990, including four Mediterranean-style ecosystems.

• Mega diversity nations are countries with a high proportion of these hotspots of diversity.
Hot-spots of biodiversity
The areas on earth which exhibit high species richness as well as high species endemism are termed as hot-spots of
biodiversity.

These hotspots cover only about 2.3% of the worlds land area.

Over 50% of the world’s plant species and 42% of all terrestrial vertebrate species are endemic to the 35 biodiversity
hotspots.

Criteria to be satisfied for a biodiversity hotspot

A region must satisfy two strict requirements in order to be considered a biodiversity hotspot:
•Include at least 1,500 vascular plant species that are unique to the planet (known as “endemic” species).
•Have lost the majority of their native vegetation by at least 70%. In other words, it must be threatened.

Who Declares Biodiversity Hotspots?

Hotspots were first defined and promoted by Conservation International. Conservation International was founded
in 1989, just one year after scientist Norman Myers published the article that popularised the idea of safeguarding
these beautiful places.
Criteria of Biodiversity Hotspots
•To qualify as a biodiversity hotspots, a region must meet two criteria- according to Conservation International
• It must have at least 1,500 vascular plants as endemics which is to say, it must have a high percentage of plant
life found nowhere else on the planet. A hotspot is irreplaceable.
• It must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation and must be threatened
Biodiversity hotspots in the world

Sl. No. Name of the Hotspot Location

1. Tropical Andes South America
2. Tumbes-Choco-Magdalena South America
3. Madrean Pine–Oak Woodlands North and Central America
4. Cerrado South America
5. Chilean Winter Rainfall and Valdivian Forests South America
6. Atlantic Forest South America
7. Mesoamerica North and Central America
8. Caribbean Islands North and Central America
9. California Floristic Province North and Central America
10. Guinean Forests of West Africa Africa
11. Cape Floristic Region Africa
12. Succulent Karoo Africa
13. Maputaland–Pondoland–Albany Africa
14. Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa Africa
15. Eastern Afromontane Africa
16. Horn of Africa Africa
17. Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands Africa
18 Mediterranean Basin Europe and Central Asia
19. Caucasus Europe and Central Asia
20. Irano-Anatolian Europe and Central Asia
21. Mountains of Central Asia Europe and Central Asia
22. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka South Asia
23. Himalaya South Asia
24. Mountains of Southwest China East Asia
25. Indo-Burma South Asia
26. Sundaland Southeast Asia and Asia-Pacific
27. Wallacea Southeast Asia and Asia-Pacific
28. Philippines Southeast Asia and Asia-Pacific
29. Japan East Asia
30. Southwest Australia Southeast Asia and Asia-Pacific
31. East Melanesian Islands Southeast Asia and Asia-Pacific
32. New Zealand Southeast Asia and Asia-Pacific
33. New Caledonia Southeast Asia and Asia-Pacific
34. Polynesia–Micronesia Southeast Asia and Asia-Pacific
35. Forests of East Australia Southeast Asia and Asia-Pacific
36. North American Coastal Plain North and Central America
Remaining Time -6:03

10 Most Threatened Biodiversity Hotspots

1.Cerrado
2.Himalayas
3.Polynesia-Micronesia
4.Atlantic Forest
5.Indo-Burma
6.Philippines
7.Madrean Pine-oak Woodlands
8.Coastal Forests
9.Cape Floral Region
10.MesoAmerica
Biodiversity Hot Spots in India
There are four Biodiversity Hotspots in India:
•Himalaya
•Indo-Burma
•Western Ghtas
•Sundaland
Himalayan Hotspot

•It is the dwelling place of the highest mountains on Earth, such as Mt. Everest. These mountains has a wide array of
ecosystems that vary from grasslands and forests in lower regions to meadows at higher altitudes where trees cannot
grow.
•It’s remarkable that even vascular plants have been found flourishing at elevations exceeding 6,000 meters.
•This hotspot is a crucial habitat for many significant bird and mammal species, including vultures, tigers, elephants,
rhinos, and wild water buffalo.

Indo-Burma Hotspot

•Encompassing over 2 million sq. kms. of tropical Asia, the Indo-Burma region continues to unveil its rich biological
treasures.
•In the past 12 years alone, six significant mammal species have been discovered like the large-antlered muntjac,
the Annamite muntjac, etc.
•This area is also home to a remarkable number of unique freshwater turtle species, many of which are facing the
threat of extinction due to excessive harvesting and extensive loss of their natural habitats.
•Furthermore, the bird population in Indo-Burma is incredibly diverse, boasting nearly 1,300 distinct species, including
endangered ones like the white-eared night-heron, the gray-crowned crocias, and the orange-necked partridge.
Sundaland

•The population of orangutans, which can only be found in this hotspot, is experiencing a significant decline.
•Similar to many tropical regions, the forests in the Sundaland Hotspot are being cleared to make way for commercial
activities. Rubber, oil palm, and pulp production are three major factors that are severely affecting the biodiversity in this
region.

Western Ghats-Sri Lanka

•The forests in the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka have been severely impacted due to the increasing population and the
resulting demand for timber and agricultural land.
•The remaining forests in the Western Ghats are highly fragmented, and in Sri Lanka, only 1.5 % of the original forest
remains.
•The pressure from the growing population is also affecting the outskirts of protected areas, where illegal activities such as
farming, logging, and poaching take place.
•The unique combination of the yearly monsoons and the mountainous terrain in this area has created a hotspot that is
home to a diverse range of plants, reptiles, and amphibians, many of which are found nowhere else in the world.
•Sri Lanka alone may have as many as 140 species of amphibians that are endemic to the region.
•Additionally, the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka are home to significant populations of Asian Elephants, Indian Tigers, and the
endangered Lion-tailed Macaque.
•The region also boasts a remarkably high level of freshwater fish endemism, with over 140 native species.
 Biogeography

Study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time.

The worldwide distribution are as follows:

1. Australian Floral Region: This region includes the plant of whole Australia which is characterized by typical plant species.

2. Cape Floral Region: This floral kingdom has developed in the southern tip of Africa where the plants having bulbs and
tubers have developed and these represents the typical plant species of the floral kingdom.

3. Antarctic Floral Regions: This region includes a narrow strip in the north of Antarctica which runs from Patagonia and
Southern Chile of South America.

4. Palaeotropical Floral Region: This region includes most of Africa, South West Asia, South Asia, South East Asia and southern
and middle portions of China.

5. Neotropical Floral Region: This region includes South America except southern Chile and Patagonia.

6. oreal Floral Region: This floral region includes the whole of Northern America except Middle America, Greenland, entire
Europe, Northern Asia and Arctic Region
There are ten biogeographic zones in India.

• Trans-Himalayan zone.
• Himalayan zone
• Desert zone.
• Semiarid zone.
• Western ghat zone.
• Deccan plateau zone.
• Gangetic plain zone.
• North east zone.
• Coastal zone
• Islands
Bio-geographic Zones of India Bio-geographic Provinces of India

Trans Himalaya 1A: Himalaya- Ladakh Mountains

1B: Himalaya-Tibetan Plateau
1C: Trans-Himalaya Sikkim
The Himalaya 2A: Himalaya- North West Himalaya
2B: Himalaya- West Himalaya
2C: Himalaya- Central Himalaya
2D: Himalaya- East Himalaya
The Indian Desert 3A: Desert-Thar
3B: Desert-Katchchh
The Western Ghats 4A: Western Ghats-Malabar Plains
5B: Western Ghats- Western Ghats Mountains
The Deccan Peninsula 6A: Deccan Peninsular-Central Highlands
6B: Deccan Peninsular- Chotta Nagpur
6C: Deccan Peninsular- Eastern Highland
6D: Deccan Peninsular- Central Plateau
6E: Deccan Peninsular- Deccan South
The Gangetic Plains 7A: Gangetic Plain- Upper Gangetic Plains
7B: Gangetic Plain- Lower Gangetic Plains
The Coasts 8A: Coasts-West Coast
8B: Coasts- East Coast
8C: Coasts-Lakshadweep
North-East India 9A: North-East- East- Brahmaputra Valley
9B: North-East-North East Hills
Islands 10A: Islands-Andaman
10B: Islands-Nicobar
Trans- Himalayan Region:
The Trans Himalayan regions of the states of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh The high
snowcapped peaks and high dusty valleys with altitudes ranging from 2,500m to 4,500m.
Desert Zone:
This includes Rajasthan, Haryana, Gujrat and Kachha. The climate is dry. Hot and dry summer and
cold winter. Rainfall is less than 70 cm.The common animals found in the area are Donkey, Deer,
Cheetal, Neelgai, snakes and lizards. Babul, Kikar, and wild date palm grow in areas.
North-East Zone:
North-east India has several species of orchids, bamboos, ferns and other plants. Plants include
cultivated plants such as banana, mango, citrus and pepper.
Islands:
The Arabian Sea Islands or Bay Islands lay only about 220 km. They possess best-preserved
evergreen forests of India.
Himalayan Zone:
The region has two parts: Indo-Burma and the newly distinguished Himalaya. The Eastern Himalaya
includes Bhutan, southern, central and eastern Nepal, and northeastern India.
Western Ghat Zone:
Western Ghats is a mountain range that runs through the states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa,
Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. It supports the life of 7,402 species of flowering plants,1814
species of non-flowering plants, 139 mammal species, 508 bird species, 179 amphibian species, 6000
insects species and 290 freshwater fish species.
Gangetic Plain Zone:
The Gangetic plain extend up to the Himalayan foothills. Great Plains cover about 72.4mha area with the
Ganga and the Brahmaputra forming the main drainage axes in the major portion.
Deccan Plateau Zone:
This is the largest unit of the Peninsular Plateau of India. The plateau is surrounded by the western and the
Eastern Ghats. It includes the region lying south of the Satpura range. The highlands of the plateau are
covered with different types of forests, which provide a large variety of forest products. The Western Ghats
includes the Sahyadri, Nilgiris, Anamalai, and cardamom hills.
Semi Aired Zone:
Adjoining the desert are the semi-arid areas, a transitional zone between the desert and the denser forests of
the Western Ghats. Thorn forest. This region is characterized by discontinuous vegetation cover with open
areas of bare soil and soil-water deficit throughout the year. Thorny shrubs, grasses and some bamboos are
present in some regions.
Coastal Zone:
The west coast is narrow except around the Gulf of Cambay and the Gulf of Kutch. The backwaters are the
characteristic features of this coast.
IUCN
The International Union for Conservation of Nature works to achieve the following goals:
1.To provide scientific data on the status of species and subspecies at a global level.
2.To address the factors of concern and spread awareness regarding the species and
biodiversity extinction.
3.To plan a layout for the conservation of biodiversity.

IUCN Red List Users

The IUCN Red List provides accurate data on the status of different species on the Earth. This
information is used by various departments, institutes, and organizations.

•Government agencies (National & International)

•Wildlife organizations and departments
•Conservation-related NGOs
•Natural resource planners
•Educational organizations
•Zoos and aquariums
•Media
•Business communities
The Red Data Book refers to a document maintained by a state or a nation that is established to
record and document the rare and endangered species of plants and animals that exist within the
boundary of that respective state or nation.

The book helps to provide detailed information for studies and research regarding the endangered
species. In addition to that it also helps in coordinating and developing monitoring programs on these
endangered and rare species. It is of great help in designing effective measures that could help in
protecting various endangered species.

Purpose of the IUCN Red List Data

•International Agreements such as CITES, Ramsar Convention use the Red List data to make important
decisions with the status of nature as and when required.
•It can be used to find out the conservation status of any species.
•It can be beneficial in developing a conservation plan for an endangered species of animals or
plants.
Following are the 9 categories in the IUCN red list:

•Extinct (EX) – No known individuals remaining.

•Extinct in the wild (EW) – Known only to survive in captivity, or as a naturalized population outside its historic range.
•Critically endangered (CR) – Extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.
•Endangered (EN) – High risk of extinction in the wild.
•Vulnerable (VU) – High risk of endangerment in the wild.
•Near threatened (NT) – Likely to become endangered soon.
•Least concern (LC) – Lowest risk. Does not qualify for a more at-risk category. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this
category.
•Data deficient (DD) – Not enough data to assess its risk of extinction.
•Not evaluated (NE) – Has not yet been evaluated against the criteria
•Extinct (EX) – No known individuals remaining.
•Extinct in the wild (EW) – Known only to survive in captivity, or as a naturalized population
outside its historic range.
•Critically endangered (CR) – Extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.
•Endangered (EN) – High risk of extinction in the wild.
•Vulnerable (VU) – High risk of endangerment in the wild.
•Near threatened (NT) – Likely to become endangered soon.
•Least concern (LC) – Lowest risk. Does not qualify for a more at-risk category. Widespread and
abundant taxa are included in this category.
•Data deficient (DD) – Not enough data to assess its risk of extinction.
•Not evaluated (NE) – Has not yet been evaluated against the criteria
Black: Extinct species;

Red: Critically Endangered Species;

Orange: Endangered species;

Amber: Vulnerable Species;

White: Rare species;

Green: Out of Danger species;

Grey: Species that are “endangered, vulnerable or rare but with a lack of sufficient information to
precisely categorise them”
List of critically endangered species in India as per IUCN Red List 2019-2022
The updated data will be provided here post the publication of the IUCN Red List 2022
(September 2021).

Of the 115,000 species assessed by the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), 27% are
classified as endangered worldwide (i.e. the IUCN Red List categories 'critically endangered', 'endangered'
and 'vulnerable’).

The list of critically endangered species in India from various categories are given below:

Critically Endangered Mammals

1.Pygmy Hog
2.Andaman White-toothed Shrew
3.Jenkin’s Andaman Spiny Shrew
4.Nicobar White-tailed Shrew
5.Kondana Rat
6.Large Rock Rat or Elvira Rat
7.Namdapha Flying Squirrel
8.Malabar Civet
9.Sumatran Rhinoceros
10.Javan Rhinoceros
Critically Endangered Birds

1.Aythya Baeri
2.Forest Owlet
3.Great Indian Bustard
4.Bengal Florican
5.Siberian Crane
6.Spoon-billed Sandpiper
7.Sociable Lapwing
8.Jerdon’s Courser
9.White-backed Vulture
10.Red-headed Vulture
11.White-bellied Heron
12.Slender-billed Vulture
13.Indian Vulture
14.Pink-headed Duck
15.Himalayan Quail
Critically Endangered Reptiles
1.Gharial
2.Hawksbill Turtle
3.River Terrapin
4. Bengal Roof Turtle
5.Sispara day gecko

Critically Endangered Fishes

1.Pondicherry Shark
2.Ganges Shark
3.Knife-tooth Sawfish
4.Large-tooth Sawfish
5.Narrow-snout Sawfish
Endangered species in the world are listed below:
West Virginia Spring Salamander (U.S.A)
1.Giant Panda (China)
2.Golden Lion Tamarin (Brazil)
3.Siberian Tiger (Siberia)
4.Mountain Gorilla (Africa)
5.Pine Barrens Tree Frog (Male)
6.Arabian Oryx (Middle East)
7.African Elephant (Africa)
8.Other important endangered species are:
Tortoise, Green sea Turtle , Gharial, Python (Reptiles)
9.Peacock, Siberian White Crane, Pelican, Indian Bustard (Birds)
10.Hoolock gibbin, Lion-tailed Macaque, Capped mokey, Golden monkey (Primates)
11.Rauvol fia serpentina (medicinal plant), Sandal wood tree, etc

Other important endangered species are:

Tortoise, Green sea Turtle , Gharial, Python (Reptiles)
1.Peacock, Siberian White Crane, Pelican, Indian Bustard (Birds)
2.Hoolock gibbin, Lion-tailed Macaque, Capped monkey, Golden monkey (Primates)
3.Rauvolfia serpentina (medicinal plant), Sandal wood tree, etc.
In India, 450 plant species have been identified as endangered species. 100 mammals and 150 birds are
estimated to be endangered.

According to the IUCN RED List 2021, a total of 199 species in India are considered to be in the severely
endangered category. There were a total of twenty species from India that were added to the IUCN Red List of
Critically Endangered Species in the year 2021. There were fourteen animal species and six plant species.
Critically Endangered Species now includes fifteen additional species that are found in India.

India's biodiversity is threatened primarily due to:

Habitat destruction
1.Degradation and
2.Over exploitation of resources

Some of the rarest animals found in India are:

Asiatic cheetah, Asiatic Lion, Asiatic Wild Ass, Bengal Fox, Gaur, Indian Elephant, Indian Rhinoceros,
Marbled Cat, Markhor
Rare species that are unique to India

The Asiatic Lion and the Gir Forest

The Asiatic Lion, commonly known as the Indian Lion, is endemic to only the Gir Forest National Park in Gujarat and
the areas immediately around it. These animals are considered to be on the verge of extinction. These are two of
India’s five big cats; the others are the Indian Leopard and the Bengal Tiger. India is home to a total of five large cats.
Kashmir Stag, Kashmir Valley
The Dachigam National Park in the Kashmir Valley and the Chamba district in Himachal Pradesh are home to the
Hangul, another name for the Kashmir Stag. Both of these areas are located in Himachal Pradesh.
The Western Ghats, and the Lion-Tailed Macaque
Only the Western Ghats of Southern India are known to be home to this one-of-a-kind primate species, making it the
world’s rarest, most endangered primate.
Purple Frog, Western Ghats
The only place on Earth where you can find the purple frog, also called the Pignose frog, is in the rainforests of
India’s western ghats. It burrows underground for most of its existence.
Sangai Deer, Loktak Lake
In addition to its other name, the Brow Antlered Deer, this species can only be found in Manipur’s Keibul Lamjao
National Park. This park is a marshy wetland and it is situated in the southern portions of Loktak lake.
Nilgiri Tahr, Nilgiri Hills
It is an endangered species of wild sheep that can only be found in the unique Nilgiri Hills of the Western Ghats.
Other species that can only be found in India include the following:
Pygmy Hog, Assam
Bronzeback Vine Snake, Western Ghats
Nilgiri Blue Robin, Nilgiri Hills
Malabar Civet, Western Ghats
Anaimalai Gliding Frog, Anaimalai Hills
Namdapha Flying Squirrel, Arunachal Pradesh
Indian Giant Squirrel
Bonnet Macaque

Species in India that are on the verge of extinction;

Kolar Leaf-nosed Large bat-like rock rat
Namdapha The Squirrel That Can Fly
Nicobar Hangul, also known as the Chinese Pangolin and
Jenkin’s Shrew
Andaman White-toothed Shrew
Sumatran Rhinoceros
Javan Rhinoceros
Pygmy Hog
Malabar Civet.
Other important endangered species are:
• Tortoise, Green sea Turtle , Gharial, Python (Reptiles)
• Peacock, Siberian White Crane, Pelican, Indian Bustard (Birds)
•Hoolock Hoolock gibbin, Lion-tailed Macaque, Capped tailed Macaque, Capped mokey, Golden monkey (Primates)
•Rauvolfia serpentina

According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

• 25 species of animals and 77 plant species are critically endangered,

• 205 animals and 172 plants are endangered,
• 385 animals and 138 plants are vulnerable,
FACTORS AFFECTING ENDANGERED SPECIES

Human beings dispose wastes indiscriminately in nature thereby polluting the air, land and water. These pollutants
enter the food chain and accumulate in living creatures resulting in death.
1.Over-exploitation of natural resources and poaching of wild animals also leads to their extinction.
2.Climate change brought about by accumulation of green houses gases in the atmosphere. Climate change
threatens organisms and ecosystems and they cannot adjust to the changing environmental conditions leading to
their death and extinction.
3.An international treaty to help protect endangered wildlife is, "Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species 1975" (CITES). This treaty is now signed by 160 countries.
CITES lists 900 species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens or wildlife products as they are in
danger of extinction.
4.CITES restricts trade of 2900 other species as they are endangered.
Endemic species of India
Species that are found only in a particular region are known as endemic species. Almost 60% the endemic species
in India are found in Himalayas and the Western Ghats. Endemic species are mainly concentrated in:
North-East India
1. North-West Himalayas
2.Western Ghats and
3.Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

Examples of endemic Flora species are

Sapria Himalayana
1.Ovaria Lurida
2.Nepenthis khasiana etc

Endemic fauna of significance in the western ghats are:

Lion tailed macaque
1.Nilgiri langur
2.Brown palm civet and
3.Nilgiri tahr

Factors affecting endemic species:

Habitat loss and fragmentation due to draining and filling of inland wetlands.
1.Pollution also plays an important role.
Sacred Groves
A sacred forest or grove comprises patches of natural vegetation – from a few trees to several acres – that are dedicated to
local deities or tree spirits. Sacred grooves are a special area of a forest with all the trees and wildlife venerated and given total
protection by a deity. These spaces are protected by local communities because of their religious beliefs and traditional rituals
that run through several generations. These sacred groves are self-sustaining mini-ecosystems, and no one is permitted to cut
any tree or plant, kill animals and birds, or harm any form of life in this area.

In some forests, even the dry foliage and fallen fruits are not touched. People believe that any kind of disturbance
will offend the local deity, causing diseases, natural calamities or failure of crops.
For example, the Garo and the Khasi tribes of north-eastern India prohibit any human interference in the sacred
groves. In other places, deadwood or dried leaves may be picked up, but the live tree or its branches are never cut.
For example, the Gonds of central India prohibit the cutting of a tree but allow fallen parts to be used.

In India, sacred groves are found all over the country and abundantly along the Western Ghats. Although, there has
been no comprehensive study of sacred groves in the entire country, experts estimate the total number of sacred
groves in India could be in the range of 100,000 – 150,000.
1.Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya
2.Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan
3.Western Ghat regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra
4.Sarguja, Chanda and Baster areas of Madhya Pradesh
5.Nagabanas (serpent abodes), Boothasthaanas (Devi abodes) etc.
6.Kavus of Kerala
Ecological Significance
Conservation of Biodiversity – The sacred groves are important repositories of floral and faunal diversity that have been
conserved by local communities in a sustainable manner. They are often the last refuge of endemic species in a geographic
region.

Recharge of aquifers – The groves are often associated with ponds, streams or springs, which support the water
requirements of the local people. The vegetative cover helps in the recharging aquifers.

Soil conservation - The vegetation cover of the sacred groves improves the soil stability of the area and prevents soil
erosion.
Threats to the Sacred Forests

The threats vary from one region to the other and even from one forest to the other. But the common threats
identified are:

•Disappearance of the traditional belief systems, which were fundamental to the concept of sacred forests.
These systems and their rituals are now considered mere superstition
•Sacred forests in many parts of our country have been destroyed due to rapid urbanization and
developmental interventions such as roads, railways tracks, dams including commercial foretry.
Encroachment has led to the shrinkage of some of the largest forests in the country

•Many forests are suffering due to ‘Sanskritisation’ or the transformation of the primitive forms of nature
worship into formal temple worship
•Invasion by exotic weeds such as Eupatorium odoratum, Lantana camara and Prosopis juliflora is a serious
threat to some grove
•Pressures due to increasing livestock and fuelwood collection
List of Sacred Groves of India

Number of
State Local term for Sacred Groves
Sacred Groves
Andhra Pradesh Pavithravana 580
Arunachal Pradesh Gumpa Forests (Attached to Buddhist 101
monasteries)
Goa Deorai, Pann 55
Jharkhand Sarana 29
Karnataka Devara Kadu 1531
Kerala Kavu, Sara Kavu 299
Maharashtra Devrai, Devrahati, Devgudi 2820
Manipur Gamkhap, Mauhak (Sacred bamboo 166
Reserve)
Meghalaya Ki Law Lyngdoh, Ki Law Kyntang, Ki Law 101
Niam
Orissa Jahera, Thukuramma 169
Puducherry Kovil Kadu 108
Rajasthan Orans, Kenkris, Jogmaya 560
Tamil Nadu Swwami shoal, Koikadu 752
Uttarakhand Deo Bhumi, Bugyal (Sacred Alpine 22
Meadows)
West Bengal Garamthan, Harithan, Jahera, Sabitrithan, 39
Santalburithan
1.Hunting and logging are usually strictly prohibited within these patches.
2.Other forms of forest usage like honey collection and deadwood collection are sometimes allowed on a sustainable
basis.
3.Sacred groves did not enjoy protection via federal legislation in India. Some NGOs work with local villagers to protect
such groves. Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2002 has introduced legislation for providing government protection
to community-held lands, which could include sacred groves.
4.Indian sacred groves are often associated with temples, monasteries, shrines or with burial grounds.
5.Historically, sacred groves find their mentions in Hindu, Jain and Buddhist texts, from sacred tree groves in Hinduism to
sacred deer parks in Buddhism example. Sacred groves may be loosely used to refer to natural habitats protected on
religious grounds.
6.Other historical references to sacred groves can be obtained in Vrukshayurveda an ancient treatise, and ancient classics
such as Kalidas's Vikramuurvashiiya. There has been a growing interest in creating green patches such as
the Nakshatravana grove.
7.Among the largest sacred groves of India are the ones in Hariyali, near Gauchar in Chamoli District of Uttarakhand, and
the Deodar grove in Shipin near Simla in Himachal Pradesh.
8.A Sarpakkavu or Snake Grove is a kind of holy grove found in Kerala. Kavu is the traditional name given for Sacred
groves across the Malabar Coast in Kerala, South India. Kavus is notable for Theyyam, the centuries-old ritual dance.
9.Umang Lai (literally, "Forest Deities") is a form of holy Sacred grove found in Manipur. There are more than 365
Umang Lais, affiliated with the ancient religion of Sanamahism, which exists in various regions scattered across the
Himalayan state of Manipur since ancient times. The holy, as well as a religious festival of Lai Haraoba, is celebrated
especially in regard to these holy sacred groves.
Manipur stands 8th rank among all the Indian States and 1st rank for North East India,
for having the highest number of sacred groves across the country.
 INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES

An alien plant also referred to as exotic, introduced, foreign, non-indigenous or non-native, is one that has
been introduced by humans intentionally or otherwise through human agency or accidentally from one region to
another. An alien plant that has escaped from its original ecosystem and is reproducing on its own in the regional
flora is considered a naturalized species.

In most cases, such introductions are unsuccessful, but when they do become established as an invasive
alien species (defined by IUCN (2000) as “an alien species which becomes established in natural or semi-natural
ecosystems or habitat, is an agent of change, and threatens native biological diversity”).

According to the Convention for Biological Diversity, invasive alien species are the second largest cause of
biodiversity loss in the world and impose high costs to agriculture, forestry, and aquatic ecosystems.

The global extent and rapid increase in invasive species is homogenising the world’s flora and fauna and is
recognized as a primary cause of global biodiversity loss.

Bio-invasion may be considered as a form of biological pollution and significant component on global change
and one of the major causes of species extinction.
 Once established, some alien species have the ability to displace or replace native plant and animal species,
disrupt nutrient and fire cycles, and cause changes in the pattern of plant succession.

Many invasive plants continue to be admired by people who may not be aware of their weedy nature. Others are
recognized as weeds but property owners fail to do their part in preventing their spread. Some only colonize small
areas and do not do so aggressively. Others may spread and come to dominate large areas in just a few years.

The loss due to invasive species in United States estimated to be $125-150 billion each year and 25% of US
agriculture gross national product lost due to foreign pests and weeds (McNeely et al. 2001).
Alien plants can spread rapidly because of our mobile society and the intentional transportation of ornamental
and forage plants (Randall and Marinelli, 1997).

Characteristic features of Invasive species:

• Invasive species possess characteristic features like
• “pioneer species” in varied landscapes,
• tolerant of a wide range of soil and weather conditions,
• generalist in distribution,
• produces copious amounts of seed that disperse easily,
• grows aggressive root systems,
• short generation time,
• high dispersal rates,
• long flowering and fruiting periods,
• broad native range,
• abundant in native range.
•The most common characteristics of invasive species are rapid reproduction and growth, high
dispersal ability, ability to survive on various food types, and in a wide range of environmental
conditions and the ability to adapt physiologically to new conditions, called phenotypic plasticity.

The present study focuses on 173 species of invasive alien plants in India. These include the most serious invasives, such
as Alternanthera philoxeroides, Cassia uniflora, Chromolaena odorata, Eichhornia crassipes, Lantana camara, Parthenium
hysterophorus, Prosopis juliflora and others.

The physical routes and paths formed due to landslides and the overflow of rivers had paved the
way for the establishment of primary colonies of invasive species like Nila grass (Mimosa
diplotricha), Mikania (Mikania micrantha), Lantana (Lantana camara) and Siam
weed (Chromolaena odorata).
1. Threat to Kerala’s Native Eco System –
1. Cultivable lands are under threat because the invasive species present in the Kole
Wetlands started colonizing the paddy fields that may lead to the conversion of marshy
wetlands into dry land.
2. In many areas, seeds of invasive species have spread to new spaces from mountainous
areas due to landslides. These species can grow very fast in landslide-affected areas by
using available nutrients, while native species cannot adapt to such conditions.
3. In rubber plantations, cover crops (species are grown mainly to prevent soil erosion) like
mucuna (Mucuna bracteata), a nitrogen-regulating plant, are more likely to establish
themselves in the new areas and subsequently spread into the forests through the
corridors created by landslides. This could affect the soil and destroy the microhabitat of
that area.
Exotic species
Exotic species are the alien species which are also known by other names like invasive species,
non-indigenous species or bioinvaders. These species grow in a non-native environment.
Zoological Survey of India Report on Invasive Species
The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) has for the first time compiled a list of 157 alien invasive animal
species! This list excludes the invasive microbe species.

•The 58 invasive species found on land and in freshwater comprise of 19 fish species, 31 species of
anthropods, 3 of molluscs and birds, 1 of reptile and 2 of mammals
•Among alien invasive marine species, genus Ascidia accounts for the maximum number of species
(31), followed by Arthropods (26), Annelids (16), Cnidarian (11), Bryozoans (6), Molluscs (5),
Ctenophora (3), and Entoprocta (1)

Some commonly found alien species:

•African apple snail (Achatina Fulica): The most invasive among all alien fauna in India, this mollusc
was first reported in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is now found across the country and is
threatening the habitat of several native species.
•Papaya Mealy Bug (Paracoccus marginatus): Native of Mexico and Central America, it is believed
to have destroyed huge crops of papaya in Assam, West Bengal, and Tamil Nadu.
•Cotton Mealy Bug (Phenacoccus solenopsis): Native to North America, it has severely affected
cotton crops in Deccan
•Amazon sailfin catfish (Pterygoplichthys pardalis): This species is responsible for destroying the fish
population in the wetlands of Kolkata.
Other prominent cases in India in recent times

Chilka Lake became degraded mainly through siltation and the choking of the seawater inlet
channel, this resulted in the proliferation of invasive freshwater species, a decrease in fish
productivity, and an overall loss in biodiversity.

Invasive growth of the grass Paspalum distichum has changed the ecological character of large
areas of the Keoladeo National Park, reducing its suitability for certain waterbird species including
the Siberian Crane.

In the Kanjli Wetlands, the water hyacinth which was introduced is now invasive. From time to time it
is removed using mechanical means.

At the Ropar wetlands, invasive weeds are also a concern, and management plans are under
development.
Types of conservation
Ex situ conservation
Conserving biodiversity outside the areas where they naturally occur is known as ex situ conservation. Here,
animals and plants are reared or cultivated in areas like zoological or botanical parks.
Reintroduction of an animal or plant into the habitat from where it has become extinct is another form of ex situ
conservation.
Seedbanks, botanical, horticultural and recreational gardens are important centres for ex situ conservation.

In situ conservation (Onsite)

Conserving the animals and plants in their natural habitats is known as in situ conservation. This includes the
establishment of
•National parks and sanctuaries
•Biosphere reserves
•Nature reserves
•Reserved and protected forests
•Preservation plots
•Reserved forests
Biodiversity Conservation Methods

There are a number of different methods that can be used to help conserve biodiversity. Some of the most
common methods include:
•Preserving Habitats: One of the most important things that can be done to help conserve biodiversity is to
protect the habitats that are home to various species. This can be done through the establishment of
protected areas, such as national parks and nature reserves.
•Restoring Habitats: Another way to help conserve biodiversity is to restore degraded habitats. This can
involve things such as planting new trees and restoring wetlands.
•Reducing Habitat Destruction: Habitat destruction is one of the biggest threats to biodiversity. Reducing the
amount of habitat destruction can help to conserve the species that live in those habitats.
•Promoting Sustainable Use of Resources: Sustainable use of resources is another important way to help
conserve biodiversity. This includes things such as using resources in a way that does not harm the
environment and does not reduce the availability of those resources in the future.
•Educating the Public: Educating the public about the importance of biodiversity and the threats that it faces
is another important way to help conserve it. This can involve things such as providing information about the
different species that exist and the habitats that they live in.
 In Situ Conservation
•In situ conservation is the conservation of natural resources within their natural habitats. This includes
the conservation of plant and animal species, their ecosystems, and the ecological processes that sustain
them. In situ conservation is often called “on-site” or “in-place” conservation.
•In situ conservation is a critical component of the global strategy to protect biodiversity. It is also the most
cost-effective and least intrusive form of conservation. By protecting species and their habitats in situ, we
can safeguard the greatest number of plants and animals possible, while minimizing the impact on the
environment.

In situ conservation can be implemented in a variety of ways, including:

1. Establishing protected areas and reserves
2. Preserving and restoring natural habitats
3. Implementing sustainable land-use practices
4. Conducting research and monitoring the natural environment
5. Educating the public about the importance of conserving biodiversity
In situ conservation is often more successful than ex situ conservation (conservation outside of their natural
habitats), because it does not disrupt the natural ecology of the species or ecosystem. In addition, in situ
conservation is more cost-effective and can be more easily adapted to changing environmental conditions.
Gene Sanctuary
•The Gene Sanctuary is a location inside the Biologic Space Laboratories research station. It is a place where
the Metroids are kept and studied. The sanctuary is a large, enclosed area with a high ceiling, and is filled with
Metroids in various stages of growth.
•The Gene Sanctuary is a location on the planet SR388. It is a large, enclosed area with a high ceiling, and is
filled with Metroids in various stages of growth.

Sacred Groves
Sacred groves are areas of natural vegetation that are considered sacred by a particular culture. They are
often found near temples or other religious sites. Sacred groves are often used for ceremonies or as places of
refuge.
National Parks

•are areas of land and/or water set aside by national governments as natural areas for the protection and enjoyment of the
public.
•National parks are typically large areas of unspoiled, natural scenery. They are set aside by national governments to
protect the environment and the public’s right to enjoy it. National parks are often home to a wide variety of plant and
animal life, and they offer opportunities for outdoor recreation such as hiking, camping, and fishing.
The National Parks are small parks managed, created and protected by the government which are used for the
conservation of species. In these parks, human activities are prohibited. Some examples of national parks in India are:

National Parks State

Kaziranga National
Assam
Park
Kanha National Park Madhya Pradesh
Bandipur National
Karnataka
Park
Ranthambore
Rajasthan
National Park
 Wildlife Sanctuaries State
Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary Kerala
Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary Rajasthan
Mudumalai Sanctuary Tamil Nadu
Chilka Lake Bird Sanctuary Orissa
Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary Kerala
Biosphere Reserves
Biosphere reserves are areas developed and maintained by the locals for the sustainable development
and protection of wildlife, plants, and the ecosystem. It includes the ecosystem of both land and
marine. In these reserves, tourism and research activities are permitted. Some examples of biosphere
reserves in India are:

Biosphere reserves State

Nilgiri Biosphere Tamil Nadu, Kerala,
Reserve and Karnataka
Sundarbans
West Bengal
Biosphere Reserve
Nanda Devi
Uttarakhand
Biosphere Reserve
Pachmarhi Biosphere
Madhya Pradesh
Reserve
Zoological Parks
Zoological parks are places where animals are shifted from their natural habitat for protection and breeding. It is a
place where the public is allowed to visit and see these animals. Some examples of zoological parks in India are:

Zoological Parks State

Nehru Zoological Park Telangana

Nandankanan
Orissa
Zoological Park
Bannerghatta
Karnataka
Biological Park
National Zoological
Delhi
Park
Botanical Gardens
It is a place where species of living plants are kept. It is more like a display garden of various plant species. They help in
the promotion, study, and conservation of endangered plant species.

Botanical Gardens State

Lalbagh Botanical Garden Karnataka

Government Botanical Garden Tamil Nadu

Lloyds Botanical Garden West Bengal

National Botanical Research

Uttar Pradesh
Institute

Advantages of In-situ conservation

It is less expensive because species are preserved in their

natural habitats.
Many species can be protected and preserved simultaneously.
Captive breeding and Gene banks

• When animals are bred in captivity (often at zoos), it is called captive breeding.

• Captive breeding of animals and artificial propagation of plants provides the opportunity to increase the
population of the species so that they can be reintroduced into the wild.

• Gene banks store seeds, sperm & ova at extremely low temperatures and humidity.

• It is very helpful to save a large variety of species of plants & animals in a very small space such as sperm and ova
banks, seedbanks.

Advantages of Ex-situ conservation

Organisms are completely secured from predation and poaching.

Helps in monitoring the health of individual organisms.
modern reproductive technology can be used, which increases the chances of reproductive success.
Ex Situ Conservation
In situ conservation is the conservation of plants and animals in their natural habitats. It is the most effective
way to protect biodiversity.

Advantages of Ex Situ Conservation Include

The main advantage of ex situ conservation is that it allows for species to be preserved even when they are
not found in the wild. This is important because it means that species that are on the brink of extinction can
be saved. Additionally, ex situ conservation allows for researchers to study and learn more about threatened
and endangered species.

Biodiversity Conservation Strategies

•The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a treaty that was adopted in 1992 to protect biodiversity.
The treaty has three main goals:
•The conservation of biological diversity
The sustainable use of its components
The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources
•The CBD has been ratified by over 190 countries, making it one of the most successful environmental
treaties ever.
•One of the main ways that the CBD tries to achieve its goals is by creating national biodiversity strategies. A
national biodiversity strategy is a document that outlines how a country will protect and manage its
biodiversity. It usually includes a list of priority areas for conservation, as well as specific actions that will be
taken to achieve conservation goals.
•The CBD also encourages countries to create regional biodiversity strategies. A regional biodiversity strategy
is a document that outlines how a group of countries will protect and manage their biodiversity. It usually
includes a list of priority areas for conservation, as well as specific actions that will be taken to achieve
conservation goals.
•The CBD also encourages countries to create international biodiversity strategies. An international
biodiversity strategy is a document that outlines how a group of countries will protect and manage their
biodiversity. It usually includes a list of priority areas for conservation, as well as specific actions that will be
taken to achieve conservation goals.
Strategies for Biodiversity Conservation
The strategies for biodiversity conservation are:
1. Establishing protected areas: Protected areas are areas of land and/or water that are set aside and managed
specifically to protect biodiversity.
2. Preventing habitat loss and degradation: Habitat loss and degradation are the two primary threats to
biodiversity. Habitat loss occurs when an area of habitat is destroyed, while habitat degradation occurs when an
area of habitat is damaged, making it less suitable for wildlife.
3. Promoting sustainable use of natural resources: Sustainable use of natural resources means using
resources in a way that does not damage or destroy the environment.
4. Encouraging the conservation of genetic diversity: Genetic diversity is the variety of genes within a species. It
is important for the survival of a species because it allows for adaptation to changing environmental conditions.
5. Promoting the conservation of species: Species conservation is the protection of individual species from
extinction.
6. Addressing the issue of climate change: Climate change is a global problem that is having a devastating
impact on biodiversity. It is important to address climate change in order to protect biodiversity.
Biodiversity Agreements and Policies
The Convention of Biological Diversity
The Convention of Biological Diversity, also known as the Biodiversity Convention or CBD, is an international treaty between
over 190 nations around the world for the international management of sustainable development. The Biodiversity
Convention was signed in June 1992. All 196 nations meet every two years to set priorities and commit to work plans.

Fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.

The Cartagena Protocol is a supplementary agreement to the Convention of Biological Diversity that went into effect in 2003.
The Cartagena Protocol specifically aims to regulate the movements of living organisms modified by modern technology, like
genetically modified plants, for safety purposes.

A second supplementary agreement, the Nagoya Protocol, was adopted in 2010 to provide a clear legal framework for the
equitable sharing of genetic resources between participating nations to help with the conservation of global biodiversity. The
Nagoya Protocol also set a goal of cutting the extinction rate in half by 2020.

The Endangered Species Act

On a domestic scale, the U.S. Endangered Species Act, or ESA, is a key federal policy for the protection of biodiversity. The
ESA provides protection to species threatened with extinction and establishes species-specific recovery plans.
As part of these endangered species recovery plans, the ESA works to restore and protect vital habitats.
Key points from the Convention on Biological Diversity

The convention focusses on:

•Development of strategies for conservation and sustainable use of biological resources;
•Establishment of protected areas, restoration of degraded ecosystems, control alien species, and establish ex-situ conservation
facilities.
•Organize training and research programmes for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and support such
programmes in developing countries;
•Promote public education and awareness for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity;
•Recognize the right of government to regulate access to their own genetic resources and grant other Parties access to genetic
resources for environmentally sound uses;
•encourage technology and biotechnology transfer particularly to developing countries;
•establish an information exchange between the parties on all subjects relevant to biodiversity;
•promote technical and scientific cooperation between parties (particularly to developing countries) to enable them to implement
the convention;
•ensure that countries that provide genetic resources have access to the benefits arising from them; and
•provide financial resources to developing countries/parties to enable them to carry out the requirements of the convention.
Few Important Indian Acts adopted by Government of India related to Environment and Biodiversity Conservation:

1.Fisheries Act 1897

2.Indian Forests Act 1927
3.Mining and Mineral Development Regulation Act 1957
4.Prevention of cruelty to animals 1960
5.Wildlife protection act 1972
6.Water (prevention and control of pollution) act 1974
7.Forest Conservation Act 1980
8.Air (prevention and control of pollution) act 1981
9.Environment Protection Act 1986
10.Biological Diversity Act 2002
11.Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers (recognition of rights) act 2006
Mass extinction

It is a short period of geological time in which a high percentage of biodiversity, or distinct species—bacteria,
fungi, plants, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, invertebrates—dies out.

In the last 500 million years, five great mass extinction events have changed the face of life on Earth. Five mass
extinctions had taken place before which saw the destruction of about 70-90% of plants and animal species. These were
caused by environmental changes, natural disasters like volcanic eruptions etc. Following each extinction event, it took
millions of years for the surviving species to regain their previous population.
Timeline Result
End Ordovician, 444 86% of species lost
million years ago
Late Devonian, 383-359 75% of species lost
million years ago
End Permian, 252 million 96% of species lost
years ago
End Triassic, 201 million 80% of species lost
years ago
End Cretaceous, 66 million 76% of all species lost
years ago
• The Ordovician-Silurian mass extinction- Occurred 443 million years ago and wiped out approximately 85%
of all species. It was caused by dropping temperatures and formation of huge glaciers. This caused sea
levels to drop dramatically. Many small marine species died.

• The Devonian mass extinction-Took place 374 million years ago and killed about three-quarters of the
world's species, most of which were marine invertebrates. This was a period of many environmental
changes, including global warming and cooling, a rise and fall of sea levels and a reduction in oxygen and
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

• The Permian mass extinction- Happened 250 million years ago. It was the largest and most devastating
event of the five. It is also known as the Great Dying. It eradicated more than 95% of all species, including
most of the vertebrates which had begun to evolve by this time. Some scientists think Earth was hit by a
large asteroid which filled the air with dust particles that blocked out the Sun and caused acid rain. Others
think there was a large volcanic explosion which increased carbon dioxide and made the oceans toxic.

• The Triassic mass extinction-Occurred 200 million years ago, eliminating about 80% of Earth's species,
including many types of dinosaurs. This was probably caused by colossal geological activity that
increased carbon dioxide levels and global temperatures, as well as ocean acidification.

• The Cretaceous mass extinction- Occurred 66 million years ago, killing 78% of all species, including the
remaining non-avian dinosaurs. This was most likely caused by an asteroid hitting the Earth in what is
now Mexico, potentially compounded by ongoing flood volcanism in what is now India.
Causes of mass extinction

Past mass extinctions were caused by

• extreme temperature changes,
• rising or falling sea levels
• catastrophic events such as huge volcanic eruptions
• asteroid hitting Earth.

For instance, a large part of Katie's work includes exploring extinction through fossils such as
bivalves. Bivalves have been around for 500 million years and one of the oldest groups of fossils.

The Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction is the youngest mass extinction event, and probably the most
studied.
Overview of Sixth Mass Extinction Event

The Sixth Mass Extinction, also known as the Holocene Extinction and Anthropocene Extinction, is an
ongoing extinction event of species during the present era (known as the Holocene Epoch) due to
human activity.

The Sixth Mass Extinction event includes the disappearance of land animals beginning from the last
glacial period.

The land animals that did not evolve at the same pace as humans proved to be sensitive to their
new environment and many of them died when the human population rose and learnt to hunt.
Reasons for the Holocene Extinction

• Human activity like overhunting is adding stress to the animal species. Increased meat
consumption overfishing are just a few examples of decline in biodiversity. Human population
growth that increases consumption is also a factor.

• Humans act as “global superpredators” beyond precedence that prey on other apex predators
as well, affecting the global food chain. Across continents, animal species have already gone
extinct and it continues into the 21s century.

• Human-derived factors have been recognised to the rise in methane and carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere.

• Agricultural development is also an allied factor that is leading to terminal decline in the animal
species
Steps for Mitigation of the Sixth Mass Extinction

• Scientists have proposed that the global community designate at least 30% of the planet as
protected areas by 2030, which is to increase by 50% by 2050.

• In January 2021 the UN Convention on Biological Diversity drafted a Paris-Agreement style plan to
prevent ecological collapse and reduce pollution by 50% with the goal of allowing for restoration
of damaged ecosystems by 2050.

• It has been proposed by scientists that the extinction levels be kept below 20 % per year for the
next century in order to mitigate biodiversity loss. But far more concrete steps are needed to
implement to prevent the worse outcome of the Holocene extinction coming to pass.
Ways to stop mass extinction

Urgent action is needed if we are to curb human impacts on biodiversity.

•Paris Agreement. We can ramp up our commitments to cutting carbon emissions under the Paris Agreement and limit
global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius.

•30X30. Our leaders can support the America the Beautiful initiative to conserve 30% of US lands and waters by 2030.

•Kunming-Montreal Agreement. US leadership can play a critical role alongside 195 other countries in conserving at least
30% of lands, inland waters, and oceans worldwide.

•Grassroots action. While the federal government can set high-level policies to conserve nature, businesses, communities,
and individuals have a powerful role to play in shifting corporate behavior with their consumer choices and demanding
accountability from political leaders.
Keystone species

Any organism (animals/plants/bacteria/fungi) that glue that holds a habitat together. It may not be the largest or most
plentiful species in an ecological community. If a keystone is removed, it sets off a chain of events that turns the structure
and biodiversity of its habitat into something very different.

Keystone species maintain the local biodiversity of an ecosystem, influencing the abundance and type of other species in a
habitat. They are nearly always a critical component of the local food web.

Types of Keystone Species

Predator
By keeping the populations and range of their prey in check, keystone predators, like wolves and sea otters,
impact other predators as well as other animal and plant species farther down the food chain. Remove a keystone predator,
and the population of creatures it once hunted can explode, pushing out other organisms and reducing species diversity.
This domino effect is known as a trophic cascade.

Prey
Keystone prey, which include animals ranging from Antarctic krill to Canadian snowshoe hares, have a big role to play in the
ecosystem. They serve as a critical food source for predator populations; moreover, they are resilient creatures, unlike some
other types of prey species that are more susceptible to becoming rare or extinct within an ecosystem.
 Without its keystone species, an entire ecosystem would radically change—or cease to exist altogether. It’s important to note
that a species’ role can change from one ecosystem to the next, and a species that is considered a keystone in one
environment may not be considered the same in another.
Starfish
The sea star, Pisaster ochraceus, is a keystone predator found in the tidal pools of northwestern North America. When
comparing two stretches of shoreline—one from which he physically removed the sea stars and hurled them out to sea—Paine
observed the huge influence on biodiversity that the starfish had on the landscape where they remained, despite being
relatively uncommon. On tidal outcrops lacking the predatory sea star, mussels soon crowded out many of the 15 original
species, including algae, limpets, anemones, and sponges. Within a single year, the biodiversity of Paine’s starfish-free
ecosystem was nearly halved.

Wolves
Gray wolves are a top predator whose presence has a ripple effect on the rest of its ecosystem. Studies show that wolves
keep elk populations in check, preventing them from over-browsing on willow and aspen, which in turn helps
maintain healthy stands of trees in the landscape. Wolves are a boon to other predator populations as well, with their
uneaten food scraps strengthening the food supply of scavengers like eagles, coyotes, and bears.
“Umbrella” Species

A species whose protection is anticipated to extend to a significant number of naturally coexisting species is known
as an umbrella species. “Umbrella” or “flagship” species are species whose conservation is assumed to correlate
positively with protection of other, unrelated species, or communities. For example, European beetle Osmoderma
eremita serves as a suitable umbrella species for other beetles associated with tree hollows.

These species are typically migratory and require a vast habitat.

These are the species chosen for conservation decisions, typically because protecting them indirectly protects the many
other species that comprise the ecological community of their habitat.

•The majority of the animals mentioned as possible umbrellas are huge mammals and birds, but invertebrates.

•Umbrella species have broad requirements that overlap with those of many other species. Other species are
automatically protected when umbrella species are protected.

•The minimum species range of an umbrella species is frequently used to determine the size of a protected area.
•Umbrella species can be of any type and do not have to be apex predators or charismatic megafauna.

•It is clear that single-species umbrellas cannot guarantee the conservation of all coexisting species since certain species are
invariably constrained by ecological reasons unrelated to the umbrella species.

The umbrella species is frequently either a flagship species, whose protection benefits other species or a keystone
species, whose impact on an ecosystem may make it a conservation target.

•Animals and plants can both be umbrella species, with each providing the other with protection.
•The IUCN Red List categorizes the majority of the umbrella species as being endangered or threatened, therefore protecting
them also means protecting their environment.
Examples

•Spotted Owl: The spotted owl is one of the notable umbrella species, and its conservation helps to
old-growth forests.
•Mollusks and Salamanders: Mollusks and salamanders are now protected inside the protective zone
the conservation of both species.
•Amur Tiger: The conservation of the Amur tiger in the Russian Far East also immediately results in the
conservation and protection of the deer and boar in their habitat.
•Bay Checkerspot Butterfly: The protection of the Bay Checkerspot Butterfly automatically results in the
protection of the Grassland.
•Siberian Tiger: The endangered Siberian tiger is an umbrella species with a range of more than 1,000
kilometres (620 miles) in Russia's far east, extending into China and North Korea.
• The species is found in both temperate and boreal (subarctic) biomes, and its range includes
forested ecosystems.
• The snowy "umbrella" of the Siberian tiger range protects deer, boar, and moose populations
Importance of Umbrella Species
•umbrella species are extremely important when deciding and selecting potential conservation areas such as
national parks, reserves, or other protected wildlife areas.
•umbrella species serves as a natural tool for assessing an ecosystem's health, composition, and thus knowing
how to preserve it.
•Identifying these species is critical for developing an effective conservation area to protect specific ecosystems.

Umbrella Species - Umbrella Effect

•An easier method of managing the ecological community is through the umbrella effect, which is the extension
of conservation to other species inside the habitat of the umbrella species.
•The umbrella effect is the level of a species' influence on other nearby species as a result of the local
conservation efforts
Advantages & Disadvantages

•umbrella species help in safeguarding other species in a region.

•A "shortcut" to the protection of regions that may have been disturbed otherwise has been provided by
conservation based on the identification of umbrella species home range.
•Other species may suffer if the umbrella species' environment is altered for its benefit rather than the
region just being conserved.
Flagship species (charismatic species)

Species that are chosen to act as an ambassador or symbols for a specific cause. These species are selected to gain
support for a range of reasons that include campaigns, conservation of habitat, balancing the ecosystem, etc. These
species help to support the marketing of such causes. Examples of flagship species are tigers, pandas, elephants, etc.

• These species are the species that are well-known and easily recognizable by the general public.
• They are endangered are chosen so as to create more awareness towards their protection.
• They are chosen for fund generation, support, and other aspects of a marketing campaign related to conservation.
• They also serve the purpose of reminding us of the significance of biodiversity, flora, and fauna.
Focal species are animal and plant species that provide an essential ecological function, or are indicative of essential
habitat conditions. These species include pangolins, rhinos, and the Chinese giant salamander.
Translocation
It is an important tool in species conservation, where the majority of our native species are threatened by introduced
predators.

Translocation to predator-free islands has become an increasingly important strategy to save our endangered species.
It typically includes the following steps:
•Establishing clear goals for the translocation.
•Securing the support of local stakeholders.
•Identifying a suitable source population.
•Careful checks of the proposed new site.
•Capturing the predetermined number of individuals. These need to be an appropriate mix of males and females.
•Moving the animals to the new site as quickly as possible, usually by helicopter using suitable containers.
•Release into the specified area. This may include specially designed habitats or artificial burrows.
•Post-translocation monitoring. Sometimes this includes monitoring of information from electronic tags placed on the
animals before release.
Translocation types

There are 4 different types of conservation translocation.

1. Reinforcement
This is the translocation of an organism into an existing population of the same species within its natural range. Reinforcement
aims to improve population viability, for example, by increasing:
•population size
•genetic diversity
•the representation of specific demographic groups or stages
2. Reintroduction
This is the translocation of an organism inside its natural range, to areas from which it has been lost. It aims to re-establish a
viable population of the focal species within its natural range.
3. Assisted colonisation
This is the translocation of an organism to benefit the conservation status of the focal species outside its natural range. It aims
to establish populations in places where the current or future conditions are likely to be more suitable than those within the
natural range.
4. Ecological replacement
This is the translocation of an organism outside its natural range to perform a specific ecological function that has been lost
through extinction of another organism. It usually involves replacing the extinct species with a related subspecies or closely
related species that will perform the same or similar ecological function.

The translocation varies from species to species.

Benefits of translocation

•Translocation to a mainland or offshore island can provide opportunities for more in-depth scientific research.
•Reintroduction (via translocation) plays an important role in any project that aims to restore a habitat to its natural state.
•Translocation enables the establishment of multiple populations to minimize the risk of a single population being wiped
out by a random event (such as a fire or new disease).
•Translocation can be used to add genetic diversity.

Species benefits
Conservation translocations can:
•increase the number of species or places where that species can be found
•improve the genetic health and resilience of a population
•establish ‘bridging populations’ between colonies, which can help with migration and genetic exchange
•establish populations in areas where the species will be less threatened
Habitat benefits
Conservation translocations can:
•increase the overall species richness of a habitat to enhance its biodiversity
•increase the quality of a habitat quality
•improve ecosystem services and functions - for example, introducing a bee to a new area could help to pollinate rare
wild flowers

Human benefits
Conservation translocations can:
•enrich people’s experiences and environmental awareness - for example, restoring a lost species and recreating a
more natural environment for people to enjoy
•improve ecosystem services which lead to human benefits - for example, pollination of garden fruit and vegetables
•provide a source of revenue from ecotourism, as people come to visit the species or improved habitat
Species reintroduction

It is the release of captive born animals to areas where they once existed. Reintroduction is defined as ‘the intentional
movement and release of an organism inside its indigenous range from which it has disappeared’.
It usually involves species that are endangered or extinct in the wild.

In some cases, reintroduction involves a species that had been wiped out in a particular ecosystem, but survived
elsewhere in the wild.

Since native species return to localities where they had been extirpated, the process is also termed as "re-establishment".

The goal of species reintroduction is to establish a healthy, genetically diverse, self-sustaining population to an area where
it has been removed or to augment an existing population. Species that may be eligible for reintroduction are
typically threatened or endangered in the wild. Example, wolves being reintroduced to a wild area to curb
an overpopulation of deer. Because reintroduction may involve returning
Methods for sourcing individuals

There are a variety of approaches to species reintroduction. The optimal strategy will depend on the biology of the
organism.

In situ sourcing
In situ sourcing for restorations involves moving individuals from an existing wild population to a new site where the
species was formerly uprooted. Ideally, populations should be sourced in situ when possible due to the numerous risks
associated with reintroducing organisms from captive populations to the wild.

• To ensure that reintroduced populations have the best chance of surviving and reproducing, individuals should be
sourced from populations that genetically and ecologically resemble the recipient population.

• Generally, sourcing from populations with similar environmental conditions to the reintroduction site will maximize
the chance that reintroduced individuals are well adapted to the habitat of the reintroduction site otherwise there
are possibilities that they will not take to their environment.

• One consideration for in situ sourcing is at which life stage the organisms should be collected, transported, and
reintroduced. For instance, with plants, it is often ideal to transport them as seeds as they have the best chance of
surviving translocation at this stage. In case seed are not available, they need to be translocated as juveniles or
adults.
Ex situ sourcing

In situations where in situ collection of individuals is not feasible, such as for rare and endangered species with too few
individuals existing in the wild, ex situ collection is possible.

Ex situ collection methods allow storage of individuals that have high potential for reintroduction. Storage examples
include germplasm stored in seed banks, sperm and egg banks, cryopreservation, and tissue culture.

Methods allow storage of high numbers of individuals also aim to maximize genetic diversity. Stored materials generally have
long lifespans in storage.

Organisms may also be kept in living collections in captivity. Living collections are more costly than storing germplasm.

Risk increases when sourcing individuals to add to living collections.

Loss of genetic diversity is a concern because fewer individuals stored. Individuals may also become genetically adapted to
captivity, which often adversely affects the reproductive fitness of individuals.

Adaptation to captivity may make individuals less suitable for reintroduction to the wild.
Challenges

•Cost. A species reintroduction program is often an expensive undertaking. According to this PBS article, “the most
expensive captive program ever was the California condor reintroduction program, which has cost over 35 million
dollars since 1987.”
•Captive breeding. Some species are hard to breed in captivity. Example -Giant Panda.
•Lack of learned knowledge. Species born in captivity are not able to learn from their parents the knowledge they
need to survive in the wild. Skills like catching prey, finding shelter and responding to predators must be taught to
captive bred populations before reintroduction.
•Single event catastrophes. Even if a species is bred successfully in captivity and even if it learns to survive in the
wild on its own, there is the concern that a single event, such as a hurricane, drought or disease could decimate
the newly reintroduced population.
Feasibility
•The species must be shown to have been previously present in the region
•After re-establisment, the species should be self-maintaining
•There needs to be a sound knowledge of the species' natural history
•There should be an understanding of the likely ecological effects
•The re-introduction should be modelled to predict its outcome
•A Population Viability Analysis should be performed
Appropriateness
•Suitable sites with good habitat within the former range must exist
•The cause of the original extinction must be identified and eliminated
Provenance
•Re-introduced animals should be of the same or similar genetic stock
•Re-introduced animals must not endanger the status of source populations
•Re-introduced animals should be free of pathogens and screened by a vet
•Re-introduced animals from captive stock must have been appropriately reared
•Captive stock must be able to adapt behaviourally
Socio-economic
•The project should have long-term financial and political support
•There should be a cost-benefit analysis for the local human population
•Local attitudes should be assessed as reintroductions should have local support
•There needs to be government support
•Risks to life and property need to be assessed and accepted
Releasing
•Pre- and post-release monitoring is needed
•There needs to be a proper release strategies with veterinary supervision
•There needs to be a public relations programme
•There should be a scientific evaluation which is later published
1. Cheetahs return to India
India’s native population of cheetahs was officially declared extinct in 1952. Namibia in south-west Africa has one of
the world's biggest cheetah populations. Eight wild cats were brought to India to kickstart a five-year restoration programme
there.
The cheetahs will be based at Kuno-Palpur National Park in the state of Madhya Pradesh, which has the right climate and
habitat for them.
.

2. Wild bison return to the UK

In the United Kingdom, wild European bison have been released into a forest in Kent in south-east England to help manage the
woodland. The natural behaviour of bison – like grazing, eating bark, felling trees and dust bathing – can restore the
biodiversity of a landscape by helping other species to thrive.
4. Rat kangaroos’ return to Australia
In Australia, an endangered mammal called the brush-tailed bettong, or woylie, has been re-introduced after disappearing
more than 100 years ago.

Also known as ‘rat kangaroos,’ bettongs are about the size of a rabbit and move around with a springy hop.

The animals used to be found in more than 60% of Australia, but were “almost wiped out when cats and foxes were
introduced by Europeans,” according to New Scientist.

Twelve male and 28 female woylies have now been re-introduced to mainland South Australia. The animals are important
earth engineers. By dispersing seeds and nutrients while digging up tonnes of soil every year, they improve habitats for
other species, New Scientist explains.
Steps Taken By Government for Biodiversity Protection

Indian Government has taken various biodiversity protection steps. Important measures include:

1.The Central Government enacted the Wild Life (Protection) Act, in 1972. The Act, inter alia, provides for the
creation of Protected Areas for the protection of wildlife and also provides for punishment for hunting of specified
fauna specified in schedules I to IV thereof.

1.Wetland (Conservation and Management) Rules 2010 have been framed for the protection of wetlands, in the
States.

2.The Centrally Sponsored Scheme of the National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Eco-System also provides
assistance to the States for the management of wetlands including Ramsar sites in the country.

3.The Wildlife Crime Control Bureau has been established for control of illegal trade in wildlife, including
endangered species.

4.Wildlife Institute of India, the Bombay Natural History Society, and the Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and
Natural History are some of the research organizations undertaking research on the conservation of wildlife.

5.The Indian Government has banned the veterinary use of diclofenac drug which has caused the rapid population
decline of Gyps vultures across the Indian Subcontinent. Conservation Breeding Programmes to conserve these
vulture species have been initiated at Pinjore (Haryana), Buxa (West Bengal), and Rani, Guwahati (Assam) by the
Bombay Natural History Society.
1.The Centrally Sponsored Scheme ‘Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats‘ has been modified by including
a new component namely ‘Recovery of Endangered Species‘ and 16 species have been identified for recovery viz.
Snow Leopard, Bustard (including Floricans), Dolphin, Hangul, Nilgiri Tahr, Marine Turtles, Dugong, Edible Nest
Swiftlet, Asian Wild Buffalo, Nicobar Megapode, Manipur Brow-antlered Deer, Vultures, Malabar Civet, Indian
Rhinoceros, Asiatic Lion, Swamp Deer and Jerdon’s Courser.

2.Under the ‘Recovery of Endangered Species’ component of the Centrally Sponsored Scheme ‘Integrated
Development of Wildlife Habitats’ for the recovery of endangered species viz. Hangul in Jammu and
Kashmir, Snow Leopard in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Arunachal
Pradesh, Vulture in Punjab, Haryana and Gujarat, Swiftlet in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Nilgiri Tahr in Tamil
Nadu, Sangai Deer in Manipur, the government has to spend lakhs of rupees.

3.Protected Areas, viz, National Parks, Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves, and Community Reserves all over the
country covering important habitats have been created as per the provisions of the Wild Life (Protection) Act,
1972 to provide better protection to wildlife, including threatened species and their habitat.

4.Financial and technical assistance is extended to the State Governments under various Centrally Sponsored
Schemes, viz, ‘Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats’, ‘Project Tiger’, and ‘Project Elephant’ for providing
better protection and conservation to wildlife.

5.The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) has been empowered under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, of 1972 to
apprehend and prosecute wildlife offenders.
6.The State Governments have been requested to strengthen the field formations and intensify patrolling in and
around the Protected Areas.
Important Indian Acts passed related to Environment and Bio-Diversity

1.Fisheries Act 1897.

2.Indian Forests Act 1927.
3.Mining and Mineral Development Regulation Act 1957.
4.Prevention of cruelty to animals 1960.
5.Wildlife Protection Act 1972.
6.Water (prevention and control of pollution) Act 1974.
7.Forest Conservation Act 1980.
8.Air(prevention and control of pollution) act 1981.
9.Environment Protection Act 1986.
10.Biological Diversity Act 2002.
11.Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers
(recognition of rights) act 2006.

Policies Related to Environment and Bio-Diversity

1.National Forest Policy.
2.National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on
Environment and Development.
3.National Policy and Macro-level Action Strategy on
Biodiversity.
4.National Biodiversity Action Plan (2009).
5.National Agriculture Policy.
6.National Water Policy.
Projects to save threatened species

Project Tiger

Project Tiger was initiated as a Central Sector Scheme in 1973. 9 tiger reserves were formed in different habitat
types in 9 different states. First launched at the Jim Corbett National Park.
Now there are in total 18 Reserves in 13 states.
Nearly 75% of the world’s tiger population can now be found in India and tiger reserves in the country
cover an area of 75,000 square kilometres.
•As per the All India Tiger Estimation (AITE) 2021-2022, the number of tigers in India has increased by
6.74% from 2,967 in 2018 to 3,167 in 2022.

•The tiger census is held once in every 4 years by National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) in
association with state forest departments and the Wildlife Institute of India. NTCA, a statutory body
under the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change was established in 2005.

•According to the 2022 report, the tiger population has increased substantially in the Shivalik and
Gangetic flood plains in the north followed by central India.
•Composition of National Tiger Conservation Authority
• The Union Minister of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (Chairperson)
• The Minister of State in the Ministry of Environment and Forests (Vice-Chairperson)
• Three members of Parliament, Secretary, Ministry of Environment and Forests and other
members.
•Headquarters - New Delhi
•Functions - The NTCA has power to check poaching and preserve the tiger population.
•It sets up a Tiger Protection Force and funding the relocation of villages from the protected
areas.
•It also provides statutory authority to Project Tiger.
•The NTCA / Project Tiger conducts the country level assessment of the status of tiger, co-
predators, prey and habitat, using the refined methodology, as approved by the Tiger Task Force.
Crocodile Breeding Project

The project was started in Orissa and then extended to several other states in April 1975 with UNDP
assistance. The main objective was to protect the three endangered species of crocodiles namely - Gavialis
gangeticus, Crocodylus palustris and the salt water crocodile, Crocodylus porosus. Government of India
initiated The Crocodile Breeding and Conservation Program to protect the remaining population of
crocodiles. In this process, crocodile breeding centres were established.
Lesser Cats Project
The project was launched in 1976 with the assistance of WWF in India for conservation of four species of lesser
cats e.g. Felis bengalensis Kerr, Felis marmorta Martin, Felis lemruinki and Felis viverrina Bennet, found in Sikkim
and Northern part of West Bengal.

The Manipur Brow-antlered Deer Project

This was launched in 1981 in Manipur to save the brow-antlered deer (Cerevus eldi eldi) which is on the verge of
extinction. The habitat includes 35 sq.km. of park and sanctuary. The population of the deer has increased from 18
to 27.
Project Elephant

It was launched in 1991 to protect the Asiatic elephant which is also a highly endangered species because
of large scale poaching. The Government of India introduced Project Elephant in 1992 as a Centrally
Sponsored Scheme with the following goals:
1.To safeguard elephants, their habitat, and migration routes
2. To address problems of animal-human conflict
3. Elephant welfare in captivity
The Project is primarily being carried out in 16 States / UTs. Major elephant range states in the country
receive financial and technical assistance through Project Elephant from the Ministry of Environment,
Forests, and Climate Change.
In this project, elephants were preserved in their natural habitats and many natural reserves; this project is
implemented in 1616 states across 3232 elephant reserves.

Status of Elephants in India

India has the largest and the most stable population of Asian elephants. In fact, India is home to more than 60%
of all wild Asian elephants. The number of 29,964 elephants were registered in the most recent elephant census,
which was conducted in 2017. Karnataka has the highest number of elephants (6,049), followed by Assam
(5,719) and Kerala (3,054), respectively.
Steps Taken for Elephant Conservation
• To effectively manage the elephant population, the infrastructure needed to be improved in elephant
reserves.
• To conserve elephants, anti-depredation teams, anti-poaching teams, and trekkers are employed.
• Barricading and fencing to avoid human-animal conflict in required areas are promoted.
• Solar fences, trenches, and stonewalling are being installed in depredation-prone areas to reduce the
threat of elephants to human habitations.
• In order to assess the success of field conservation activities, the Monitoring the Illicit Killing of
Elephants (MIKE) program, which was established in 2003, examines trends in information about the
illegal killing of elephants from across Africa and Asia.
• Research on a range of topics, including human-animal conflict and elephant habitat carrying capacity,
is encouraged.
• Measures are taken to reduce the number of wild elephant deaths by educating the local inhabitants.

The Ministry of Environment and Forests of India established the Elephant Task Force, which delivered its
report, titled “Gajah,” to the Ministry in 2010.
Project Rhino

It was launched in 1987 in Kaziranga Wildlife Sanctuary in Assam to save the lesser one horned rhinoceros from
extinction. It covers an area of 430 sq.km. and is the natural of the dwindling rhino.

Himalayan musk deer project

This was launched in 1981 to save the endangered musk deer which is facing extinction. Captive breeding has
yielded good results.

Project Hangul
This project was launched in 1970 in Kashmir valley to save the highly endangered Kashmir stag (Cerevus
elaphus hanglu) which is facing extinction. As a result their population has increased
Vultures

Vultures are “critical” maintainers of nature’s balance by rapidly cleaning up and recycling the bodies of dead animals.
Vultures play a significant role in maintaining ecological balance by scavenging and consuming animal
carcasses, thereby preventing the spread of diseases and maintaining the cleanliness of the environment.

But they have mostly disappeared from Europe over the past 200 years because of lack of food, habitat loss, persecution
and poisoning, says Rewilding Europe, a Netherlands-based organization working to rewild landscapes across Europe.
Vulture populations are now slowly increasing, because of reintroduction programmes and species protection, Rewilding
Europe says. Vulture populations are increasing in Bulgaria and Portugal and the bird is also being introduced into Croatia.

Vulture conservation in India is a crucial effort aimed at protecting and reviving the declining populations of
vultures in the country. The population decline was noticed in the 1990s, and since then numerous efforts
have been made to reclaim the vulture population.
Researchers have recorded the first instance of captive breeding of the Himalayan vulture (Gyps himalayensis) in
India at the Assam State Zoo, Guwahati.
Categorized as ‘Near Threatened’ on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of
threatened species, the Himalayan vulture is a common winter migrant to the Indian plains and a resident of the
high Himalayas.
•The decline in vulture populations has been particularly severe in South Asia, including India, Pakistan, and Nepal.
•In the late 1990s and early 2000s, India witnessed a drastic decline in vulture populations, primarily due to the
widespread use of a veterinary drug called diclofenac.
•This drug, when consumed by livestock, caused severe kidney failure in vultures that fed on the carcasses of
treated animals.
•As a result, vulture populations declined by over 97% in some regions, leading to an ecological crisis.

The primary reasons for the vulture population decline are as follows:
•Diclofenac Poisoning: The widespread use of the veterinary drug diclofenac in livestock led to the sharp decline of
vulture populations in South Asia. When vultures feed on carcasses of animals that were treated with diclofenac,
they suffer from severe kidney failure and die. This drug was widely used to treat cattle, and the contamination of
animal carcasses with diclofenac proved to be lethal for vultures.
•Secondary Poisoning: In addition to diclofenac poisoning, vultures are also affected by secondary poisoning.
Scavengers, including vultures, consume the carcasses of animals that were poisoned by pesticides or other toxic
substances. As a result, vultures face the risk of ingesting these harmful chemicals, leading to further declines in
their populations.
•Habitat Loss: The loss of natural habitats due to urbanization, deforestation, and agricultural expansion has
negatively impacted vultures. Destruction of nesting sites, roosting areas, and food sources reduces the availability
of suitable habitats for vultures.
•Collisions with buildings: Vultures are susceptible to collisions with power lines, wind turbines, and other
infrastructure. These accidents can lead to injuries or fatalities, further contributing to the decline in their numbers.
•Poaching and Hunting: In some regions, vultures have been deliberately targeted and killed due to superstitions,
traditional beliefs, or for use in illegal wildlife trade.
•Lead Poisoning: Vultures may be exposed to lead poisoning by consuming carcasses of animals that were
hunted using lead ammunition. Lead poisoning can be fatal to vultures.
•Disease Outbreaks: Outbreaks of diseases such as avian pox and avian flu have also had adverse effects on
vulture populations.

•The drastic decline in vulture populations has ecological consequences, as vultures play a critical role in
maintaining a clean environment and preventing the spread of diseases by scavenging on animal carcasses.

IUCN Category Vulture species Scientific name

•Oriental White-backed Vulture •Gyps bengalensis

Critically •Long-billed Vulture •Gyps indicus
endangered •Slender-billed Vulture •Gyps tenuirostis
•Red-headed Vulture •Sarcogyps calvus
Neophron
Endangered Egyptian vulture
percnopterus
•Himalayan Vulture •Gyps himalayensis
Near Threatened •Cinereous Vulture •Aegypius monachus
•Bearded Vulture •Gypaetus barbatus

Least concern Eurasian griffon Gyps fulvus

Vulture Conservation in India

India’s Action Plan for Vulture Conservation 2020-2025 has also laid down various measures, including
enhancement of conservation breeding programs, monitoring populations, and setting up rescue centers.
Vulture Safe Zones: Identifying and designating vulture safe zones, where the use of diclofenac and other
harmful veterinary drugs is banned, to provide safe feeding areas for vultures.
Ban on Diclofenac: The government of India took measures to ban the veterinary use of diclofenac to
prevent its consumption by livestock.
•Recently, other drugs like Ketoprofen and Aceclofenac have also been banned in 2023.
Vulture Conservation Breeding Centers: Establishing vulture conservation breeding centers to breed and
rear vultures in captivity releasing them back into the wild to augment wild populations.
Vulture Restaurants: Creating vulture restaurants where safe food is provided to vultures to supplement
their diet and ensure their survival.
Rescue and Rehabilitation: Setting up facilities for the rescue, rehabilitation, and treatment of injured or
sick vultures.
Research and Monitoring: Conducting research and monitoring programs to study vulture populations,
behavior, and ecological requirements.
Public Awareness Campaigns: Educating and raising awareness among the public, farmers, veterinarians,
and other stakeholders about the importance of vultures and the threats they face.
Involving local communities in vulture conservation efforts, as their cooperation is essential for the
success of conservation initiatives.
Collaborating with international organizations and experts to share knowledge, expertise, and best
practices in vulture conservation.
International Big Cats Alliance (IBCA)
•Launched by - Prime Minister Narendra Modi in 2023 at Mysuru, Karnataka, to
commemorate 50 years of Project Tiger.
•Aim - To conserve 7 big cats namely Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard, Cheetah, Jaguar
and Puma
•Membership - Open to 97 range countries, which contain the natural habitat of the big
cats, as well as other interested nations, international organisations, etc.
•Features – Assured support over 5 years with guaranteed funding of over Rs 800 crore
•Rehabilitation of the big cats
•Dissemination of information on benchmarked practices, capacity building, resources
repository, research and development, and awareness creation
Great Indian Bustard Project

o The great Indian bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) or Indian bustard is a bustard found on the Indian
subcontinent. The great Indian bustard inhabits dry grasslands and scrublands on the Indian subcontinent; its
largest populations are found in the Indian state of Rajasthan.

Till 1980s, about 1,500-2,000 Great Indian Bustards were spread throughout the western half of India, spanning
eleven states.
o However, with rampant hunting and declining grasslands, their population dwindled.
o Critically endangered according to IUCN list
As per a report by the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) only 150 GIBs are left in India, out of which around 90 per
cent are found in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
o The GIBs are dying at the rate of 15 per cent annually due to collision with high voltage power lines
GIB habitats have a high density of transmission lines because of the impetus on renewable energy production
in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Habitats of critically endangered Great Indian Bustard to be declared conservation reserves

o Seeking to protect the critically endangered Great Indian Bustard, the Union Environment ministry has
1. decided to declare their habitats as conservation reserves and
2. asked power companies to consider placing high voltage lines under the ground as the birds have died after
coming in contact with them.

o Conservation reserves and community reserves are terms denoting protected areas which typically act as buffer
zones to or connectors and migration corridors between established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and
reserved and protected forests .
o Community reserves – On land of private or community ownership, if a group of people are doing conservation
work and Government gives it a legal recognition
o Conservation breeding of the Great Indian Bustard has been undertaken in collaboration with Rajasthan, Gujarat
and Maharashtra Forest Departments and technical support of Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun with the aim of
building a captive population of the species for release in the wild and promoting in-situ conservation of the species.
A tripartite agreement was signed in 2018 between the WII, state forest department and union environment ministry to
setup India’s first Captive Breeding Centre for GIBs at Sorsan area in Kota and a hatchery centre (egg collection and
hatching) at Ramdevra (Jaiselmer). Sites for establishment of a conservation breeding centres for the Great Indian
Bustard and Lesser Florican birds have been identified in consultation with the Forest Departments of Rajasthan and
Gujarat, Wildlife Institute of India and international experts.
The Western Ghats & Save the Western Ghats Movement

Western Ghats passing through six states, from Gujarat to Tamil Nadu, for the fact that it neutralizes no less
than 4 million tonnes of carbon, equivalent to 14 million tonnes of carbon dioxide annually. The diverse forests
ecosystems in the region neutralize 10 per cent of total greenhouse gas emissions neutralized by the country’s
forests. It had also put on record that the region has been one of the important global biodiversity hotspot that
harbours 1,741 species of flowing plants and 403 species of birds among a vast variety of reptiles and large
The Western Ghats, older than the Himalayas, are among 34 Global Hotspots of Biodiversity in terms of flora,
fauna, landscape and ethnicity.
They are full of bewitching locations that are home to known 4,050 types of plants, 121 species of frogs, 508
bird species, six types of turtles and terrapins, 87 species of snakes, 63 types of lizards and a wide variety of
large mammals.

Save the Western Ghats Movement is considered to be landmark event in environment history of our country. Western
Ghats cover parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. This Movement highlighted urgent
need to reduce development process in Western Ghats which threatened ecosystem of this place.

In this movement, civil society raised concerns related to impact of development on Western Ghats. Further this
movement was effective in generating awareness about environment protection and tribal rights in forest.
During 1987-1988, many local and regional people’s movement organized themselves to march the length of Western
Ghats. This was initiated to protest against development activities like dam construction or power station in the areas of
Western Ghats. The march had two Joint Coordinating Agencies, one for the Northern Districts, in Gujarat and most of the
Western Maharashtra and another for the Southern states of Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

In November 1987, hundred day-long foot march was organised by environmentalists and like-
minded citizens, creating awareness about the Western Ghat mountain ranges and also dangers it
has been facing due to human interventions and global ecological changes.

The March was a 100 days event, which included 95 days of actual travel along the entire length of the Ghats
plus 5 days of Conference and meetings in Goa. The march was in two teams, one starting from Navapur in the
North and the other from Kanyakumari in the south. Representatives from over 160 Organizations and
thousands of individuals participated in the march. There were over 600 meetings conducted during the course
of the route

Save the Western Ghats Movement (SWGM) will replicate the action in the year 2022. The core
committee of SWGM met in Goa for two days on Friday and Saturday that resolved to organize
‘foot march’ in the year 2022, espousing the cause of Saving the Western Ghats.
Silent Valley Movement

The silent valley is a tropical evergreen forest area located in Kerala. It is one of India's virgin tropical evergreen
forest and is extremely biodiverse. The Silent Valley is well-known for its rare animal and bird species. Because
this forest is lushly forested and has a huge area under vegetation, there is no loud sound in the forest apart from
that of some birds and insects, which is why this valley is identified as Silent Valley. This Valley covers a surface
area of 90 square kilometers.

Environmentalists and residents were outraged when a hydroelectric power project was proposed in 1973. In
1985, the government was forced to declare it a national reserve forest due to public pressure. It was then named
the silent valley national park. This national park is home to the most species of lion-tailed macaques in India,
which is also a critically endangered animal
• The silent valley movement arose in response to the official statement of the construction of a dam on
Kunthipura's upper stream, also called the silent valley project.
• The first survey was conducted by the state government in 1958.
• The dam over the top stream, according to British technicians, can help generate hydroelectricity.
• The planning commission gave its approval in 1973. The project's main goal was to produce 120 megawatts of
electrical power and water to yield 240 megawatts of electric power.
• In 1976, a bunch of environmentalists began to oppose the silent valley project.
• A task force was set up under the presidency of the then Vice-President of the World Wildlife Fund India.
• The task force continued to work for over a year and conducted several surveys that recommended that the
project be halted.
• The task force's report stated that the project's construction will lead to significant harm to the green cover. It will
eventually harm flora and fauna, as well as the water. This will result in high-scale forest disasters.
• This report also advised that in case the government is compelled to construct the dam, then they must also
adhere to the 17 recommendations outlined in the given report.
• In 1979, the task force's leader admitted that the initial report was a blunder and made a plea to the government
to cease the project entirely.
The silent valley campaign was launched by Kerela Sasthra Sathiya Parishad (KSSP), an NGO and Kerala’s biggest organization for
popular science. The proposal to ban the project was welcomed by the state government. The state conference agreed to the
project ban proposal, and the KSSP started a massive signature drive to halt the project’s construction. The legislative assembly
then approved the project. The project was abandoned in 1979 after the state government was ordered to do so by India’s
then-prime minister. In 1979, the state government received a directive from India’s then-Prime Minister to stop working on the
project.