1.

Complex Number
2
2. Theory of Equation (Quadratic Equation)
3 3. Sequence & Progression(AP, GP, HP, AGP, Spl.
Series)
4 4. Permutation & Combination
5
5. Determinant
6
6. Matrices
7
7. Logarithm and their properties
9
8. Probability 10 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
9. Function 9
11
14 11. Limit and Continuity & Differentiability of Function
16 12. Differentiation & L' hospital Rule
18
13. Application of Derivative (AOD)14. Integration (efinite 20
& Indefinite) 15. Area under curve (AUC)
22
24
16. Differential Equation 18. Circle
17. Straight Lines & Pair of Straight Lines 26 28
25
19. Conic Section (Parabola 30, Ellipse 32, Hyperbola 33)
30
20. Binomial Theorem and Logarithmic Series
35
21. Vector & 3-D
35
22. Trigonometry-1 (Compound Angle)
39
23. Trigonometry-2 (Trigonometric Equations & Inequations)
40
24. Trigonometry-3 (Solutions of Triangle)
 40
25. Syllbus IITJEE Physics, Chemistry, Maths & B.Arch
41
26. Suggested Books for IITJEE
43

z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) where | z | = r ; arg z = θ ; z = r (cos θ − i sin θ)

1.COMPLEX NUMBERS
Note: cos θ + i sin θ is also written as CiS θ.
1. DEFINITION : Complex numbers are definited as expressions of the form a + ib where a, b ∈ R & i = −1 . It is
−
denoted by z i.e. z = a + ib. ‘a’ is called as real part of z (Re z) and ‘b’ is called as imaginary part of z (Im Also cos x = 2ee ixix
z). www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
+ & sin x = −ixix
EVERY COMPLEX NUMBER CAN BE REGARDED AS
2ee
Purely real Purely imaginary Imaginary −
if b = 0 if a = 0 if b ≠ 0 are known as Euler's identities.
Note :
(a) The set R of real numbers is a proper subset of the Complex Numbers. Hence the Complete Number system is N (c) Exponential Representation :
θ − iθ
⊂ W ⊂ I ⊂ Q ⊂ R ⊂ C. z = rei ; | z | = r ; arg z = θ ; z = re
(vi) There exists a one-one correspondence between the points of the plane and the members of the set of complex 6. IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF CONJUGATE / MODULI / AMPLITUDE : If z , z1 ,
numbers.
(b) Trignometric / Polar Representation : z2 ∈ C then ;

+zz = 1z + 2
(b) Zero is both purely real as well as purely imaginary but not imaginary. (c) i z 
(a) z + z = 2 Re (z) ; z − z = 2 i Im (z) ; )z( = z ; 21    21
= −1 is called the imaginary unit. Also i² = − l ; i3 = −i ; i4 = 1 etc. z;

− zz = 1z − 2
zz
(d) a b = a b only if atleast one of either a or b is non- = 1z . 2 z; z2≠ 0 1
negative.www. Maths By Suhag .com z ; 21 z
= z
21 z 2
2. CONJUGATE COMPLEX :
| z | ≥ 0 ; | z | ≥ Re (z) ; | z | ≥ Im (z) ; | z | = | z | = | – z | ; z z = | z |2; (b)
If z = a + ib then its conjugate complex is obtained by changing the sign of its imaginary part & is denoted by z . i.e. z
= a − ib. z
= |z||z|21, z2≠ 0 , | zn | = | z |n ;

| z1z2| = | z1| . | z2|

Note that : www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com 1
z
(i) z + z = 2 Re(z) (ii) z − z = 2i Im(z) (iii) z z = a² + b² which is real ; 2

(iv) If z lies in the 1st quadrant then z lies in the 4th quadrant and − z lies in the 2nd quadrant. 3. However in real numbers if a2 + b2 = 0 then a = 0 = b but in complex numbers,
z12 + z22 = 0 does not imply z1 = z2 = 0.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com 4.
ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS :
EQUALITY IN COMPLEX NUMBER :
The algebraic operations on complex numbers are similiar to those on real numbers treating i as a
Two complex numbers z1 = a1 + ib1 & z2 = a2 + ib2 are equal if and only if their real & imaginary parts
polynomial. Inequalities in complex numbers are not defined. There is no validity if we say that complex
coincide.
number is positive or negative.
e.g. z > 0, 4 + 2i < 2 + 4 i are meaningless . 5. REPRESENTATION OF A COMPLEX NUMBER IN VARIOUS FORMS:
 
| z1 + z2 |2 + | z1 – z2 |2 = 2 ][2
z
2 (ii) amp z12
1+ |z||z| www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com (iii) amp(zn) = n amp(z) + 2kπ .
2
where proper value of k must be chosen so that RHS lies in (− π , π ].
z1− z2≤
≤ z1 + z2≤
≤ z1 + z2[ TRIANGLE INEQUALITY ] (7) VECTORIAL REPRESENTATION OF A COMPLEX :
Every complex number can be considered as if it is the position vector of that point. If the point P OP = z &
(c) (i) amp (z1 . z2) = amp z1 + amp z2 + 2 kπ. k ∈ I
→

  = amp z1− amp z2 + 2 kπ ; k ∈ I


OP  = z.
(a) Cartesian Form (Geometric Representation) : θ →
Every complex number z = x + i y can be represented by a point on the represents the complex number z then, OP = z = r ei then
→ →
OP and
cartesian plane known as complex plane (Argand diagram)
by the ordered pair (x, y).
length OP is called modulus of the complex number
denoted by z & θ
→
NOTE :(i) If ΛΛ

φ
then

=i Q eOPO
θ + φ) φ →
OQ = z1 = r ei ( i
= z . e . If

OQ are of unequal magnitude

is called the argument or amplitude (ii) If A, B, C & D are four points representing the complex numbers z1, z2
22
+ , z3 & z4 then AB  CD if
zz

eg . z = x y −
zz
12
− zz
−1 is purely real ;
y −
θ = tan x(angle made by OP with positive x−axis) 34

NOTE :(i) z is always non negative . > 0 is not correct AB ⊥ CD if −


Unlike real numbers z =
z if z 34 zz 12
0 is purely imaginary ]

 − < z if z

i the argument is not defined and this is the only complex number which is given by its
(ii) Argument of a complex number is a many valued function . If θ is the argument of a complex number then 2 nπ modulus.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
+ θ ; n ∈ I will also be the argument of that complex number. Any two arguments of a complex number (iii) If z1, z2, z3are the vertices of an equilateral triangle where z0is its circumcentre then (a) z
3 − z1 z2− z2 z3− z3 z1 = 0 (b) z 12 + z 22 + z 32 = 3 z 02
2 2 2
differ by 2nπ. 1 + z2 +z
8. DEMOIVRE’S THEOREM :
(iii) The unique value of θ such that – π < θ ≤ π is called the principal value of the argument. (iv)
Unless otherwise stated, amp z implies principal value of the argument. Statement : cos n θ + i sin n θ is the value or one of the values of (cos θ + i sin θ)n ¥ n ∈ Q. The theorem
(v) By specifying the modulus & argument a complex number is defined completely. For the complex number 0 + 0 is very useful in determining the roots of any complex quantity
Note : Continued product of the roots of a complex quantity should be determined using theory of equations.

+− 3i1 , (G) Complex equation of a straight line through two given points z1 & z2 can be written as ( ) ( ) ( ) 21212121
9. CUBE ROOT OF UNITY :(i)The cube roots of unity are 1 ,2 2−− 3i1. (ii) If w is one of the imaginary
−+−−− zzzzzzzzzz = 0, which on manipulating takes the form as
cube roots of unity then 1 + w + w² = 0. In general 1 + wr + w2r = 0 ; where r ∈ I but is not the multiple of 3.
(iii) In polar form the cube roots of unity are : +α+α rzz = 0 where r is real and α is a non zero complex constant.
= 0. This is also the condition for three complex numbers to be collinear.
(H) The equation of circle having centre z0 & radius ρ is : z − z0 = ρ or

z z − z0 z −0 z 0− ρ² = 0 which is of the form +α+α+ rzzzz = 0 , r is real centre − α &

z
2π+ i sin 4π
cos 0 + i sin 0 ; cos 3 32π, cos 3 + i sin34π
radius

−αα r . Circle will be real if ≥−αα 0r .

(iv) The three cube roots of unity when plotted on the argand plane constitute the verties of an equilateral
triangle.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
(v) The following factorisation should be remembered : (I) The equation of the circle described on the line segment joining z1 & z2 as diameter is : zz
(a, b, c ∈ R & ω is the cube root of unity) − π
z+ = ± 2 or (z − z1) ( z − z 2) + (z − z2) ( z − z 1) = 0
z 0
(i) arg zz
2

a3 − b3 = (a − b) (a − ωb) (a − ω²b) ; x2 + x + 1 = (x − ω) (x − ω2) ;

1
3 3 2 (J) Condition for four given points z1 , z2 , z3 & z4 to be concyclic is, the number zz
a + b = (a + b) (a + ωb) (a + ω b) ;
−
a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b + c) (a + ωb + ω²c) (a + ω²b + ωc) is real. Hence the equation of a circle through 3 non collinear points z1, z2 & z3 can be zz

10. nth ROOTS OF UNITY :www.MathsBySuhag.com , 13 zz .

−
www.TekoClasses.com If 1 , α1 , α2 , α3 ..... αn − 1 are the − − 14
23 24 zz
n , nth root of unity then :
 −−is real ⇒( )( )
π/n)
(i) They are in G.P. with common ratio ei(2 &

()
( ) ) 21
zzzz −−
=( )( ) zzzz

(ii) 1p + α1p + α2p + .... +α np− 1 = 0 if p taken as (z − z12)(z33 − ( )( ) 231132 −− ( )( ) 231132 zzzz
is not an integral multiple of n z −−
zzzz
zzzz −−
= n if p is an integral multiple of n
θ 
(iii) (1 − α1) (1 − α2) ...... (1 − αn − 1) = n & cos 

(1 + α1) (1 + α2) ....... (1 + αn − 1) = 0 if n is even and 1 if n is odd. (iv) 1 . α1 . 13.(a) Reflection points for a straight line :Two given points P & Q are the reflection points for a

α2 . α3 ......... αn − 1 = 1 or −1 according as n is odd or even. 11. THE SUM OF THE given straight line if the given line is the right bisector of the segment PQ. Note that the two points denoted by the

FOLLOWING SERIES SHOULD BE REMEMBERED : (i) cos θ + cos 2 θ + cos 3 θ complex numbers z1 & z2 will be the reflection points for the straight line α z + α z + r = 0 if and only if

+ ..... + cos n θ =( ) , where r is real and α is non zero complex constant.

α z 1+ α z 2+ r = 0
;
2nsin

(b) Inverse points w.r.t. a circle :www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com

( ) 2sin
Two points P & Q are said to be inverse w.r.t. a circle with centre 'O' and
(ii) sin θ + sin 2 θ + sin 3 θ + ..... + sin n θ =( ) 2nsin radius ρ, if : (i) the point O, P, Q are collinear and on the same side of O. (ii)
θ
OP . OQ = ρ2. Note that the two points z1 & z2 will be the inverse points w.r.t.
the circle
 +
 21nθ.

 =+α+α+ 0rzzzz if and only if 0rzzzz

θsin 

( ) 2sin θ  + 2121=+α+α+ .
 21nθ. 14. PTOLEMY’S THEOREM :www.MathsBySuhag.com ,
www.TekoClasses.com
Note : If θ = (2π/n) then the sum of the above series vanishes. z4 + z1 − z4 z2 − z3.
12. STRAIGHT LINES & CIRCLES IN TERMS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS : (A) If 15. LOGARITHM OF A COMPLEX QUANTITY :
are two complex numbers then the complex number z =
z1 & z 2 nmmznz21 (α + i β) = 
(i) Loge 21Loge (α² + β²) + i 
+divides the joins of z1

+ 
 αβ
& z2 in the ratio m : n.
−
Note:(i) If a , b , c are three real numbers such that az1 + bz2 + cz3 = 0 ; where a + b + c = 0 and a,b,c are not all +π 1
simultaneously zero, then the complex numbers z1 , z2 & z3 are collinear. (ii) If the vertices A, B, C of a ∆ represent
tann2 where n ∈ I.
the complex nos. z1, z2, z3 respectively, then :
It states that the product of the lengths of the diagonals of a convex quadrilateral inscribed in a circle is

equal to the sum of the lengths of the two pairs of its opposite sides. i.e. z1 − z3 z2 − z4 = z1 − z2 z3 −  π
i 
(ii) i represents a set of positive real numbers given by 
+π−
n2
2
 zCsecczBsecbzAseca
(a) Centroid of the ∆ ABC =
3zzz321 OR
++ CtanBtanAtanCtanzBtanzAtanz
++
: (b) Orthocentre of the ∆ ABC = e , n ∈ I.
2.THEORY OF EQUATIONS (QUADRATIC EQUATIONS) The
()()() general form of a quadratic equation in x is, ax2 + bx + c = 0 , where a , b , c ∈ R & a ≠ 0.

++ −±−
1 2 3 CseccBsecbAseca 2

++ RESULTS :1. The solution of the quadratic equation , ax² + bx + c = 0 is given

1 2 3 ++
by x = a2ac4bb
(c) Incentre of the ∆ ABC = (az1 + bz2 + cz3) ⎟ (a + b + c) . The expression b2 – 4ac = D is called the discriminant of the quadratic equation. 2. If α &

(d) Circumcentre of the ∆ ABC = :

+ β = – b/a (ii) α β = c/a (iii)
β are the roots of the quadratic equation ax² + bx + c = 0, then; (i) α
(Z1 sin 2A + Z2 sin 2B + Z3 sin 2C) ⎟ (sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C) .

(B) amp(z) = θ is a ray emanating from the origin inclined at an angle θ to the x− axis. (C) z − α–β= .
a/D
a = z − b is the perpendicular bisector of the line joining a to b. (D) The equation of a line
joining z1 & z2 is given by ;
3.NATURE OF ROOTS:(A)Consider the quadratic equation ax² + bx + c = 0 where a, b, c ∈ R & a≠ 0 then (i) D
z = z1 + t (z1 − z2) where t is a perameter.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com (E)z =
> 0 ⇔ roots are real & distinct (unequal). (ii)D = 0 ⇔ roots are real & coincident (equal). (iii) D < 0 ⇔ roots are
z1 (1 + it) where t is a real parameter is a line through the point z1 & perpendicular to oz1.
imaginary . (iv) If p +iq is one root of a quadratic equation,
1zz
can be expressed in the determinant form as then the other must be the conjugate p − i q & vice versa. (p , q ∈ R & i = −1 ). (B) Consider
(F) The equation of a line passing through z1 & z2 1zz1zz
11 the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b, c ∈ Q & a ≠ 0 then; (i) If D > 0 & is a
22 perfect square , then roots are rational & unequal.

(ii) If α = p + q is one root in this case, (where p is rational & q is a surd) then the other

root must be the conjugate of it i.e. β = p − q & vice versa. − β) = 0 i.e. x2 − (α + β) x + αβ = 0 i.e. x2 − (sum of roots) abc + 2 fgh − af − bg − ch = 0 OR
2 2 2 = 0.

4. A quadratic equation whose roots are α & β is (x −α)(x

x + product of roots = 0. ahghbfgfc

5.Remember that a quadratic equation cannot have three different roots & if it has, it becomes an identity. 6.
+ .... + an-1x + an= 0 where a0, a1, .... anare all real & a0≠ 0 then, ∑ α1= − a10, ∑ α1α2= + a20, ∑ α1α2α3=
a a
Consider the quadratic expression , y = ax² + bx + c , a ≠ 0 & a , b , c ∈ R then (i) The graph between x , y na
− a30, ....., α1α2α3........αn= (−1) an0
a
is always a parabola . If a > 0 then the shape of the parabola is concave upwards & if a < 0 then the shape of the
parabola is concave downwards. (ii) ∀ x ∈ R , y > 0 only if a > 0 & b² − 4ac < 0 (figure 3) . Note : (i) If α is a root of the equation f(x) = 0, then the polynomial f(x) is exactly divisible by (x − α) or (x − α) is a
factor of f(x) and conversely .
(iii) ∀ x ∈ R , y < 0 only if a < 0 & b² − 4ac < 0 (figure 6) .
(ii) Every equation of nth degree (n ≥ 1) has exactly n roots & if the equation has more than n roots, it is an
Carefully go through the 6 different shapes of the parabola given below. identity.
Fig. 1 Fig. 2

y yy (iii) If the coefficients of the equation f(x) = 0 are all real and α + iβ is its root, then α − iβ is also a root. i.e.
imaginary roots occur in conjugate pairs.
a>0

(iv) If the coefficients in the equation are all rational & α + β is one of its roots, then α − β is also a root
a>0a>0

11. THEORY OF EQUATIONS : If α1, α2, α3, ......αnare the roots of the equation; f(x) = a0xn + a1xn-1 + a2xn-2
where α, β ∈ Q & β is not a perfect square.
(v)
If there be any two real numbers 'a' & 'b' such that f(a) & f(b) are of opposite
x1x2
x x
www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
O O O x Roots are real & Roots are Roots are complex LOCATION OF ROOTS :
Let f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a > 0 & a, b, c ∈ R.
signs, then f(x) = 0 must have atleast one real root between 'a' and 'b' . (i)
(vi)Every eqtion f(x) = 0 of degree odd has atleast one real root of a sign opposite to that of its last term. 12. Fig. 4 Fig. 5
y
xx
yy
Conditions for both the roots of f (x) = 0 to be greater than a specified number ‘d’ are b 2 − 4ac ≥ 0; f(d) > 0
& (− b/2a) > d.
(ii)
Conditions for both roots of f(x) = 0 to lie on either side of the number ‘d’ (in other words the number ‘d’
lies between the roots of f(x) = 0) is f(d) < 0.
(iii)
Conditions for exactly one root of f(x) = 0 to lie in the interval (d , e) i.e. d < x < e are b2
− 4ac > 0 & f(d) . f(e) < 0. p & q are (p < q). b2 − 4ac ≥ 0; f(p) > 0; f(q) > 0 & p < (− b/2a) < q.
a<0

x1x2 O
x (iv) Conditions that both roots of f(x) = 0 to be confined between the numbers 13. LOGARITHMIC INEQUALITIES
OO
a<0
a<0 (i) For a > 1 the inequality 0 < x < y & logax < logay are equivalent.
Roots are real & Roots are Roots are complex 7. SOLUTION OF QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES: Qx
ax2 + bx + c > 0 (a ≠ 0). 8.MAXIMUM & MINIMUM VALUE of y = ax² + bx + c occurs at x = − (b/2a) according as ; a < 0 or
2
(i) If D > 0, then the equation ax + bx + c = 0 has two different roots x1< x2. Then a > 0 (ii) For 0 < a < 1 the inequality 0 < x < y & logax > logay are equivalent.
⇒ x ∈ (−∞, x1) ∪ (x2, ∞) (iii) If a > 1 then logax < p ⇒ 0 < x < ap
(iv) If a > 1 then logax > p ⇒ x > ap
a < 0 ⇒ x ∈ (x1, x2)www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
(v) If 0 < a < 1 then logax < p ⇒ x > ap
(ii) If D = 0, then roots are equal, i.e. x1= x2. (vi) If 0 < a < 1 then logax > p ⇒ 0 < x < ap
In that case a > 0 ⇒ x ∈ (−∞, x1) ∪ (x1, ∞) www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com

a<0⇒x∈φ 3.Sequence & Progression(AP, GP, HP, AGP, Spl. Series)

Px DEFINITION : A sequence is a set of terms in a definite order with a rule for obtaining the terms. e.g. 1 , 1/2 , 1/3 ,
(iii)Inequalities of the form ....... , 1/n , ........ is a sequence.
() AN ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION (AP) :AP is a sequence whose terms increase or decrease by a fixed
number. This fixed number is called the common difference. If a is the first term & d the common
( )0 can be quickly solved using the method of intervals.

− nthterm of this AP tn= a +

4
a > 0 . y ∈ 42 2
difference, then AP can be written as a, a + d, a + 2 d, ....... a + (n – 1)d, ........

 
 4 ac b
 
 4
ac b ,  if a > 0 & y ∈ −∞
a
− (n – 1)d, where d = an– an-1. The sum of the first n terms of the AP is given
∞ aif a < 0 . n n
by ; Sn= 2[2 a + (n – 1)d] = 2[a
,
⇒
+ l]. where l is the last term.
9.COMMON ROOTS OF 2 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS [ONLY ONE COMMON ROOT] : Let α
NOTES :(i) If each term of an A.P. isincreased, decreased, multiplied or divided by the same non zero number,
be the common root of ax² + bx + c = 0 & a′x2 + b′x + c′ = 0 Thereforea α² + bα + c = 0 ;
2 1
α a′α² + b′α + c′ = 0. By Cramer’s Ruleab a b
Therefore, α =
then the resulting sequence is also an AP.
α

′−′ = ′−′ = ′−′

bc b c a c ac
′− ′ ′− ′.So the condition for a common root is (ca′ − c′a)² = (ab′ − a′b)(bc′ − b′c).
(ii) Three numbers in AP can be taken as a – d , a , a + d ; four numbers in AP can be taken as a – 3d, a – d, a + d, a + 3d ; five numbers in AP are a – 2d , a – d , a, a + d, a + 2d & six terms in AP are a – 5d,
ca c a ′− ′ = bc b c ′ − ′
a – 3d, a – d, a + d, a + 3d, a + 5d etc.
(iii) The common difference can be zero, positive or
ab a b a c ac negative.
10. The condition that a quadratic function f(x , y) = ax² + 2 hxy + by² + 2 gx + 2 fy + c may be resolved into two (iv) The sum of the two terms of an AP equidistant from the beginning & end is constant and equal to the sum of
linear factors is that ; first & last terms.
(v) Any term of an AP (except the first) is equal to half the sum of terms which are equidistant from it. (vi) tr = Sr− (i) nth term = a rn –1 (ii) Sum of the Ist n terms i.e. Sn = ( )
ar

Sr−1(vii) If a , b , c are in AP ⇒ 2 b = a + c.
i.e. πrn= 1Gr = (G)n where G is the single GM between a & b.
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION (GP) :
GP is a sequence of numbers whose first term is non zero & each of the succeeding terms is equal to the HARMONIC MEAN :
proceeding terms multiplied by a constant . Thus in a GP the ratio of successive terms is constant. This If a, b, c are in HP, b is the HM between a & c, then b = 2ac/[a + c].
constant factor is called the COMMON RATIO of the series & is obtained by dividing any term by that THEOREM :
which immediately proceeds it. Therefore a, ar, ar 2, ar3, ar4, ...... is a GP with a as the first term & r as If A, G, H are respectively AM, GM, HM between a & b both being unequal & positive then, (i) G² =
common ratio.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com AH
(ii) A > G > H (G > 0). Note that A, G, H constitute a GP.
ARITHMETICO-GEOMETRIC SERIES :
−
n 1

−
r A series each term of which is formed by multiplying the
1, if r ≠ 1 .
corresponding term of an AP & GP is called the
a
(iii) Sum of an infinite GP when r < 1 when n→ ∞ rn → 0 if r < 1 therefore, < Arithmetico-Geometric Series. e.g. 1 + 3x + 5x2 + 7x3 + .....
Here 1, 3, 5, .... are in AP & 1, x, x2, x3 ..... are in GP.
S∞ = )1|r|( www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
Standart appearance of an Arithmetico-Geometric Series is
−
Let Sn = a + (a + d) r + (a + 2 d) r² + ..... + [a + (n − 1)d] rn 1
−.
SUM TO INFINITY :
r1
(iv) If each term of a GP be multiplied or divided by the same non-zero quantity, the resulting sequence is also a GP. d r
(v) Any 3 consecutive terms of a GP can be taken as a/r, a, ar ; any 4 consecutive terms of a GP can be taken as a/r 3, a
If r < 1 & n → ∞ then
Limit
a/r, ar, ar3 & so on.

1 +
n→∞ rn = 0 . S∞ =( ) 12 − −.

(vi) If a, b, c are in GP ⇒ b2 = ac.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com HARMONIC r

PROGRESSION (HP) :A sequence is said to HP if the reciprocals of its terms are in SIGMA NOTATIONS THEOREMS :
r
AP.If the a3, .... , an is an 1/a2, .... , 1/an is we do not have terms of an HP. (i) (ar ± br) = ar ± br.(ii) ∑
n n
k = nk ; where k
sequence a1, a2, HP then 1/a1, an AP & the formula for For HP whose n n n ∑ ∑ is a constant.
∑ k ar = k
converse. Here the sum of the n ∑ ∑ n
ar.(iii)
r
=
1
r
=
1
r
=
1
r
=
1
r
=
1
r
=
1
th ab
first term is a & second term is b, the n term is tn =
RESULTS (i) ∑
b n a b + − − ( )( )1.
2 (sum of the first n natural nos.)
n

n n( ) +1
a ab r=
a c + or c =

−
r
2ac
If a, b, c are in HP ⇒ b = =

−. 1

∑
n
bc
MEANS n n n( ) ( ) + + 1 2 1
r² = 6 (sum of the squares of the first n natural numbers)
(ii)
r
=
 1
ARITHMETIC MEAN :
If three terms are in AP then the middle term is called the AM between the other two, so if a, b, c are in
2
n
n n 22 
r3 = 1n  ⇒ 

AP, b is AM of a & c . AM for any n positive number a1, a2, ... , an is ; (iii) (sum of the cubes of the first n natural numbers)
( ) +r ∑
∑
1⇒
4
r
=

r
=
1
aaaa
A=
123+ +++n
..... n
.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
r4 = 30(n + 1) (2n + 1) (3n² + 3n − 1)www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
n
n
∑
(iv)
n - ARITHMETIC MEANS BETWEEN TWO NUMBERS :
r
=
1

If a, b are any two given numbers & a, A1, A2, .... , An, b are in AP then A1, A2, ... An are the n AM’s
between a & b .
METHOD OF DIFFERENCE : If T1, T2, T3, ...... , Tn are the terms of a sequence then some times the terms T2 − T1,
nba T3 − T2 , ....... constitute an AP/GP. nth term of the series is determined & the
+, ...... , An = a +

()−
ba ( )b a
A1 = a +

2
+ 1, A2 = a + 1

−
n sum to n terms of the sequence can easily be obtained. term of which is composed of r factors in AP,
n
+ 1= a + d , = a + 2 d, ...... , An = a + nd , n Remember that to find the sum of n terms of a series each
−
ba NOTE : Sum of n AM’s inserted between a & b is equal to n times the single AM between a & b i.e. n
where d = −
constant. Determine the value of the constant by applying the initial conditions”.
the first factors of several terms being in the same AP, we “write down the nth term, affix the next factor 4.PERMUTATION AND COMBINATION
n
at the end, divide by the number of factors thus increased and by the common difference and add a
∑
Ar = nA where A is the single AM between a & b.
+1
DEFINITIONS :1. PERMUTATION : Each of the arrangements in a definite order which can be made by
=
r 1

GEOMETRIC MEANS : 2.COMBINATION : Each of the groups or selections which can be made by taking some or all of a number
If a, b, c are in GP, b is the GM between a & c. of things without reference to the order of the things in each group is called a COMBINATION.
b² = ac, therefore b = a c ; a > 0, c > 0. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING :
n-GEOMETRIC MEANS BETWEEN a, b : If an event can occur in ‘m’ different ways, following which another event can occur in ‘n’ different ways,
then the total number of different ways of simultaneous occurrence of both events in a definite order is m × n.
If a, b are two given numbers & a, G1, G2, ..... , Gn, b are in GP. Then
This can be extended to any number of events.
G1, G2, G3 , ...., Gn are n GMs between a & b .
1/n+1 2/n+1 n/n+1 RESULTS :(i) A Useful Notation : n! = n (n − 1) (n − 2)......... 3. 2. 1 ; n ! = n. (n − 1) !0! = 1! = 1 ; (2n)! = 2n. n ! [1.
G1 = a(b/a) , G2 = a(b/a) , ...... , Gn = a(b/a)
= ar , = ar² , ...... = ar , where r = (b/a)1/n+1
n 3. 5. 7...(2n − 1)] Note that factorials of negative integers are not defined.
NOTE : The product of n GMs between a & b is equal to the nth power of the single GM between a & b (ii) If nPr denotes the number of permutations of n different things, taking r at a time, then
taking some or all of a number of things is called a PERMUTATION.
!n n
Pr = n (n − 1) (n − 2)..... (n − r + 1) = )!rn(
n = (p0 + p1 + p2 +.... + pa) (q0 + q1 + q2 +.... + qb) (r0 + r1 + r2 +.... + rc).... (c) Number of ways in which N can be resolved
−Note that , Pn = n !.
as a product of two
(iii) If nCr denotes the number of combinations of n different things taken r at a +++ perfectanotisNif....)1c)(1b)(1a( square
time, then 1
!n 12
n
where r ≤ n ; n ∈ N and r ∈ W.

[ ] perfectaisNif1)....1c)(1b)(1a( square
factors is =
=
− !rPr
= )!n2(
n
Cr !r ( )!rn number of subdivision is !2!n!n ; for in any one way it is possible to interchange the two groups
without obtaining a new distribution. However, if 2n things are to be divided
2 −
(iv) The number of ways in which (m + n) different things can be divided into which are relatively prime (or coprime) to each other is equal to 2n 1 where n is the number of
different prime factors in N. [ Refer Q.No.28 of Ex−I ]
++++
(xvi) Grid Problems and tree diagrams.
(d) Number of ways in which a composite number N can be resolved into two factors
DEARRANGEMENT : Number of ways in which n letters can be placed in n directed letters so that no letter goes
+ !)nm(
If m = n, the groups are equal & in this case the 1 1 1
into its own envelope is = n! 2! 3 411
two groups containing m & n things respectively is :
!n!m  ........... ( )
  ! ! !⇒
 .
n
n

−+++−
equally between two persons then the number of ways = (xvii) Some times students find it difficult to decide whether a problem is on permutation or combination or both.
!n!n)!n2(. Based on certain words / phrases occuring in the problem we can fairly decide its nature as per the following
(v) Number of ways in which (m + n + p) different things can be divided into three groups containing m , n & p table :www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
PROBLEMS OF COMBINATIONS PROBLEMS OF PERMUTATIONS
++ )!pnm( Selections , choose Arrangements
things respectively is!p!n!m , m ≠ n ≠ p.
Distributed group is formed Standing in a line seated in a row
Committee problems on digits
)!n3(
.However, if 3n things are to be divided equally among Geometrical problems Problems on letters from a word

If m = n = p then the number of groups = !3!n!n!n

3
5.DETERMINANT
three people then the number of ways = )!n()!n3(. ab
(vi)The number of permutations of n things taken all at a time when p of them are similar & of one type, q of them 1 The symbol
are similar & of another type, r of them are similar & of a third type & the remaining n – (p + q + r) are all
!n
different is : !r!q!p .www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com

time is ; (n − 1)!. If clockwise &

(vii) The number of circular permutations of n different things taken all at a 11a b
22
is called the determinant of order two .

− !)1n( Its value is given by : D = a1 b2− a2 b1 a b c

anti−clockwise circular permutations are considered to be same, then it is 2 . 111

− )!1n(
333
Note : Number of circular permutations of n things when p 2. The symbol
abc is called the determinant of order three .
alike and the rest different taken all at a time is!p . 222a b c
distinguishing clockwise and anticlockwise arrangement

(viii) Given n different objects, the number of b c bc all out of ac

ways of selecting atleast one of them is , nC1 + 3 3 22
D = a1b c
33
+ c1a b
C2 + nC3 +.....+ nCn = 2n − 1. This can also be − a2b c
OR
n 22
22
bc ab
stated as the total number of combinations of n 1 1 distinct things. 33
bc 33
Its value can be found as : D = a1b c ....... and so on .In this manner we can expand
(ix) Total number of ways in which it is − b1a c
33
22 + a 3b c possible to make a selection by taking some or 2 2 a
11
p + q + r +...... things , where p are alike of one kind, q alike of a second kind , r alike of third kind & so on is givenselection of four letters can be made from the letters of the word PROPORTION is given by coefficient
by : (p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1)........ –1.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com determinant in 6 ways using elements of ; R1 , R2 , R3 or C1 , C2 , C3 . 3. Following examples of short hand writing large
(x)Number of ways in which it is possible to make a selection of m + n + p = N things , where p are alike of one kind , expressions are : (i) The lines : a1x + b1y + c1 = 0........ (1)
a x + b2y + c2 = 0........ (2)
m alike of second kind & n alike of third kind taken r at a time is given by coefficient of x r in the expansion of (1 + x 2
a3x + b3y + c3 = 0........ (3)
+ x2 +...... + xp) (1 + x + x2 +...... + xm) (1 + x + x2 +...... + xn).
abc
−n n+r−1
Note : Remember that coefficient of x in (1 − x) =
111
r
Cr (n ∈ N). For example the number of ways in which a

abc 333
of x4 in (1 + x + x2 + x3) (1 + x + x2) (1 + x + x2) (1 + x) (1 + x) (1 + x).
are concurrent if , 222a b c =0.

(xi) Number of ways in which n distinct things can be distributed to p persons if there is no restriction to the number Condition for the consistency of three simultaneous linear equations in 2 variables. (ii) ax² + 2 hxy + by² + 2 gx + 2 fy
of things received by men = pn.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com + c = 0 represents a pair of straight lines if
(xii) Number of ways in which n identical things may be distributed among p persons if each person may ahg
−
receive none , one or more things is ; n+p 1Cn. (xiii)a.nCr = nCn−r ; nC0 = nCn = 1;b.nCx = nCy ⇒ x = y or x + y = n c.nCr + nCr−1 = abc + 2 fgh − af² − bg² − ch² = 0 =
n+1 hbfgfc
Cr

n −1n +1n (iii) Area of a triangle whose vertices are (xr , yr) ; r = 1 , 2 , 3 is :
n
(xiv) Cr is maximum if : (a) r = 2 if n is even. (b) r = 2 or 2 if n is odd.

(xv) Let N = pa. qb. rc...... where p , q , r...... are distinct primes & a , b , c..... are D = 12x y 33
1
natural numbers then: (a) The total numbers of divisors of N including 1 & N 1 1
is = (a + 1)(b + 1)(c + 1)..... xy If D = 0 then the three points are collinear .
22 1
(b) The sum of these divisors is xy 1

xy1 Similarly two determinants of order three are multiplied.

(iv) Equation of a straight line passsing through (x1, y1) & (x2, y2) isx y 1 1 1 = 0
xy1 abc 333 222A BC
element of a determinant is the stands For example, the
determinant of the elements which 111a b c 333
22 ≠ 0 then , D² =
222a b c
4. MINORS :The minor of a given remain after deleting the row & the (ii)If D = ABC
column in which the given element 111A B C
where Ai,Bi,Ciare cofactors

bc ac a b c 111 A A A 123 D 00
minor of a1in (Key Concept 2) is 22 & the minor of b2is 11

bc of order a c PROOF :Consider a b c 222 × = Note : a1A2+ b1B2+ c1C2= 0 etc. therefore
33 . Hence a determinant B B B 123 00D
33 abc CCC 00
two will have “4 minors” & a determinant of (−1)i+j. Mij; Where i & j denotes the row & 333 123 D
order three will have “9 minors” . 5. COFACTOR column in which the particular element lies.
:If Mijrepresents the minor of some typical Note that AAA AAA
123 123
ABC
element then the cofactor is defined as : Cij= 111

the value of a determinant of ‘Minor’ & ‘Cofactor’ can be a12M12+ a13M13OR D = a11C11+ , D x 123C CC BBB = D² OR 2 2 2 CA BC
order three in terms of written as : D = a11M11 − a12C12+ a13C13 & so on ....... B B B 123 123C C C 333
ABC
=D ⇒3
123 = D²

6. PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS : 8. SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATION (IN TWO VARIABLES) :

(i) Consistent Equations : Definite & unique solution . [ intersecting lines ]
P− 1 : The value of a determinant remains unaltered , if the rows & columns are inter changed . e.g.

if D = aaa it a
123 b
abc bbb
111a b c = 123 (ii) Inconsistent Equation : No solution . [ Parallel line ]
222a b c = D′ D & D′ are transpose of each other . If D′ = − D then c c c (iii) Dependent equation : Infinite solutions . [ Identical
123
333
lines ] Let a1x + b1y + c1= 0 & a2x + b2y + c2= 0 then : c
a b c
= ≠ ⇒Given equations are inconsistent& a b c 1
1 1 1 1 1
c
is SKEW SYMMETRIC determinant but D′ = D ⇒ 2 D = 0 ⇒ D = 0 ⇒ Skew symmetric determinant a
= = ⇒Given equations are dependent
b
2
2
2
2
2
2
of third order has the value zero .www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
9. CRAMER'S RULE :[ SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS INVOLVING THREE UNKNOWNS ] Let ,a1x + b1y + c1z = d1...(I) ;
P− 2 : If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant be interchanged , the value of determinant is changed in sign
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2...(II) ; a3x + b3y + c3z = d3...(III)
only . e.g.

a b c 111 a b c 222 D D D
Then , x = D1, Y = D2, Z = D3.
333 111d bc 111a d c 111a bd
Let D = 222a bc abc Where D = 111a bc ; D1= ; D2= & D3=
& D′ =
Then D′ = − D .
222 222
abc 333 111a b c 222 adc 222
abc dbc abd
columns) identical , then its value is zero . e.g. d b c 3 3 3 a d c 333 a b d 333
P− 3 : If a determinant has any two rows (or
a b c 333

Let D = 111a bc
abc 333 NOTE :(a) If D ≠ 0 and alteast one of D1, D2, D3≠ 0 , then (b) If D ≠ 0 & D1= D2= D3= 0 , then the given system of
111a b c then it can be verified that D = 0. the given system of equations are consistent and have equations are consistent and have trivial solution
unique non trivial solution . only .www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
P− 4 : If all the elements of any row (or column) be multiplied by the same number , then the determinant is multiplied
a x b y c z d
. In case 
by that number. consistentand have infinite solutions  
1111
(c) If D = D1= D2= D3= 0 , then the given system of equations are + + =
++=
e.g. If D = abc axbyczd axbyczd
abc 22 2 Then D′= KD 2222 3333
abc abc
111
planes then also D = D1= D2= D3= 0 but the
22
++=
and D′ = Ka Kb Kc system is inconsistent.
2 111 abc
represents these parallel

333
333 (d) If D = 0 but atleast one of D1, D2, D3is not zero then the equations are inconsistent and
P−5 : If each element of any row (or column) can be expressed as a sum of two terms then the determinant can be +++
expressed as the sum of two determinants . e.g. have no solution .
10. If x , y, z are not all zero , the condition for a1x + b1y + c1z = 0 ; a2x + b2y + c2z = 0 & a3x + b3y
axbycz abc abc xyzabc + c3z = 0 to be consistent in x , y , z is 1 1 1 a b c
111 222
111a b c 222a b c that 222a b c

=+
222a b c
abc 333
333

333
333 abc = 0.Remember that if

a given system of linear equations have Only Zero Solution for all its variables then the given equations are said
P− 6 : The value of a determinant is not altered by adding to the elements of any row (or column) the same multiples
to have TRIVIAL SOLUTION
of the corresponding elements of any other row (or column) .e.g. Let D

+++
6.MATRICES
= 333 121212a bc USEFUL IN STUDY OF SCIENCE, Unlike determinants it has no value.
222 . Then D′ = D .
abc and D′ = ECONOMICS AND
111a b c
a ma b mb c mc +++ ENGINEERING 1. Definition :
222a b c
a na b n b c n c 3 1 3 1 3 1 Rectangular array of mn numbers .

Note : that while applying this property ATLEAST ONE ROW (OR COLUMN) must remain unchanged .P− 7 : If a a a ......
by putting x = a the value of a determinant vanishes then (x − a) is a factor

  ⇒⇒⇒⇒ aaa

 ⇒or
 ......
n
  
11 12 1
 
a n
of the determinant . 7.MULTIPLICATION OF TWO DETERMINANTS :(i) A=
::::
=+ + a l b l a m b m
aaa 11 12 1
...... n
b
a bxl m
21 22 2 aaa
 21 22 2 n
...... ::::
++  
1122
aaa
11l m aaa m m mn
......
22 alblambm 12
m m mn 1 2
11121112 21222122
......

[ ] a i j 1 ≤ i ≤ m ; 1 ≤ j ≤ n, i denotes ; AB = ⇒
Abbreviated as : A =

 0001 
1. Matrix multiplication is not commutative .
 ;BA = ⇒
 0001 
the row andj denotes the column is called a matrix of order m × n. 2. Special
Type Of Matrices :  ;B=⇒ =⇒ 
 0011  A   0011⇒ AB ≠ BA (in general)
(a) Row Matrix : A = [ a11 , a12 , ...... a1n ] having one row . (1 × n) matrix. (or row vectors) 11 = ⇒

−
  11 ⇒
 22 
 a
 
−
2. AB = ⇒
  0000⇒ AB = O ⇒/ A = O or B = O
  ⇒⇒⇒⇒ 11
 ⇒ having one column. (m × 1) matrix (or column vectors) 11
a Note: If A and B are two non- zero matrices such that AB = O then A and B are called the divisors of zero. Also if
21
[AB] = O ⇒ | AB | ⇒ | A | | B | = 0 ⇒ | A | = 0 or | B | = 0 but not the converse. If A and B are
(b) Column Matrix : A = :
 am two matrices such that (i) AB = BA ⇒ A and B commute each other
1

  ⇒⇒ 000
(c) Zero or Null Matrix : (A = Om ⋅ n)An m ⋅ n matrix all whose entries are zero . 0 0  ⇒is a 3 ⋅ 2 null matrix & B =
(ii) AB = – BA ⇒ A and B anti commute each other 3. Matrix Multiplication Is Associative :
 00  If A, B & C are conformable for the product AB & BC,
A=   ⇒⇒ 000 then (A . B) . C = A . (B . C) 4. Distributivity :
 ⇒is 3 ⋅ 3 null matrix

+=+ +=+
 000  
00  11524321
A B C AB AC () ⇒ Provided A, B & C are conformable

() A B C AC BC for respective products
⇒ 5. POSITIVE INTEGRAL POWERS OF A SQUARE MATRIX : For a square matrix A , A2 A = (A A) A = A (A A) = A3 .
(d) Horizontal Matrix : A matrix of order m × n is a horizontal matrix if n > m. 

(e) Verical Matrix : A matrix of order m × n is a vertical matrix if m > n. ⇒ 6. MATRIX POLYNOMIAL :
 ⇒⇒⇒  If f (x) = a0xn + a1xn – 1 + a2xn – 2 + ......... + anx0 then we define a matrix
  42631152 polynomial f (A) = a0An + a1An– 1 + a2An–2 + ..... + anIn where A is the given
Note that for a unit matrix I of any order , Im = I for all m ∈ N.
square matrix. If f (A) is the null matrix then A is called the zero
(f) Square Matrix : (Order n)If number of row = number of column ⇒ a square matrix. Note
Addition of matrices is commutative. i.e. A + B = B + A, A = m ⋅ n; B = m ⋅ n (b)Matrix addition is
aa
(i)In a square matrix the pair of elements aij & aj i are called Conjugate Elements .e.g. associative .(A + B) + C = A + (B + C) Note : A, B & C are of the same type. (c) Additive inverse. If A + B
 =O=B+AA=m⋅n

 
11 12  ⇒
aa
  bacacbcba;k A = ⇒ 
21 22 or root of the polynomial f (x).
(ii)The elements a11 , a22 , a33 , ...... ann are called Diagonal Elements . The line along which the diagonal elements lie DEFINITIONS :(a) Idempotent Matrix : A square matrix is idempotent provided A2 = A. Note
is called " Principal or Leading " diagonal. The qty Σ ai i= trace of the matrice written as , i.e. tr A Triangular
that An = A ∀ n > 2 , n ∈ N.
Matrix Diagonal Matrix denote as ddia (d1 , d2 , ....., dn) all elements except the leading diagonal are zero diagonal
Matrix Unit or Identity Matrix
(b) Nilpotent Matrix: A square matrix is said to be nilpotent matrix of order m, m ∈ N, if Am = O , Am–1 ≠O.
Note: Min. number of zeros in a diagonal matrix of order n = n(n – 1) "It is to be noted that with square matrix there
is a corresponding determinant formed by the elements of A in the same order." 3. Equality Of Matrices : Let A = (c) Periodic Matrix : A square matrix is which satisfies the relation AK+1 = A, for some positive integer K, is a
[a i j ] & B = [b i j ] are equal if , (i) both have the same order . (ii) ai j = b i j for each pair of i & j. periodic matrix. The period of the matrix is the least value of K for which this holds true. Note that period

4.Algebra Of Matrices :Addition : A + B = [ ] a b i j i j + where A & B are of the same type. (order) (a)
of an idempotent matrix is 1.
(d) Involutary Matrix : If A2 = I , the matrix is said to be an involutary matrix. Note
 that A = A–1 for an involutary matrix. Properties of Transpose : If AT & BT denote the transpose of A and B ,
7. The Transpose Of A Matrix : (Changing rows & columns) (a) (A ± B)T = AT ± BT; note that A & B have the same order.
IMP. (b) (A B)T = BT AT A & B are conformable for matrix product AB.
Let A be any matrix . Then, A = ai j of order m ⋅ n
(c) (AT)T = A (d) (kA)T = kAT k is a scalar .
⇒ AT or A′ = [ aj i ] for 1 ≤ i ≤ n & 1 ≤ j ≤ m of order n ⋅ m General : (A1 , A2 , ...... An)T = AnT , ....... , AT2 , AT1 (reversal law for transpose)

[ ] a i j is said to be , symmetric if , ai j = aj i ∀ i & j

5. Multiplication Of A Matrix By A Scalar : IfA = ⇒  A square matrix A =
⇒    bkakckakckbkckbkak
8. Symmetric & Skew Symmetric Matrix :
(conjugate elements are equal)

6.Multiplication Of Matrices : (Row by Column)AB exists if, A = m ⋅ n & B = n ⋅ p 2 ⋅ 3 3 ⋅ 3 AB exists, but BA  n21
(Note A = AT)
does not ⇒ AB ≠ BA
Max. number of distinct entries in a symmetric matrix of order n is
Note: 2+ )1n(n. and skew
symmetric if , ai j = − aj i ∀ i & j (the pair of conjugate elements
b
 ) &B = ⇒
A = (a1 , a2 , ...... an ⇒⇒⇒ 
b : b
A prefactor B post factor
Note : In the product AB , 1⋅nn⋅1A
=
= are additive inverse of each other) (Note A = –AT ) Hence If A is skew
symmetric, then ai i = − ai i ⇒ ai i = 0 ∀ i Thus the digaonal elements of a skew
symmetric matrix are all zero , but not the converse .

a m⋅n&B=
Properties Of Symmetric & Skew Matrix : P − 1 A is symmetric if AT = A A is skew symmetric if AT = − A
[] []
] If A = b
B = [a1 b1 + a2 b2 + ...... + an bn n⋅pn
P − 2 A + ATis a symmetric matrix A − ATis a skew symmetric matrix . Consider (A + AT)T = AT +
ij ij

matrix , then (AB)i j =r ∑ = (AT)T = AT + A = A + AT A + AT is symmetric . Similarly

we can prove that A − AT
ai r . br j Properties Of Matrix Multiplication : 1
is skew symmetric . aaa
P − 3 The sum of two symmetric matrix is a symmetric matrix and the sum of two skew symmetric matrix is a skew
11 12 13

symmetric matrix . Let AT = A ; BT = B where A & B have the same order . (A + B)T = A + B Similarly we (4) If A = 0 , matrix method fails
can prove the other
P − 4 If A & B are symmetric matrices then ,

(a) AB + B A is a symmetric matrix (b) AB − BA is a skew symmetric matrix . P − 5 Every square If (adj A) . B = null matrix = O If (adj A) . B ≠ O

matrix can be uniquely expressed as a sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix. A = 2(A + AT) + 2(A −
1 1

AT) Consistent (Infinite solutions) Inconsistent (no solution)

PQ ================================================================================
Symmetric Skew Symmetric
7.LOGARITHM AND THEIR PROPERTIES
9. Adjoint Of A Square Matrix : Let A = [ ]
a =   THINGS TO REMEMBER :1.LOGARITHM OF A NUMBER :The logarithm of the number N to the base 'a' is
ij    31 32 33
the exponent indicating the power to which the base 'a' must be raised to obtain
aaa be a square matrix
N , a > 0, a ≠ 1 & N >0If a = 10then we write log b rather than log10b If a = e ,
21 22 23 a aa
the number N. This number is designated as loga N. Hence : logaN = x ⇔ ax = we write ln b rather than logeb.The
is =  CCC existence and uniqueness of the number loga N follows from the properties of
and let the matrix formed by the cofactors of [ai j] in determinant A   11 12 13 an experimental functions . From the definition of the logarithm of the number
CCC N to the base 'a' , we have an identity
21 22 23

 31 32 33 CCC :log Na a = N , a > 0 , a ≠ 1 & N > 0 This is known as the FUNDAMENTAL
. Then
LOGARITHMIC IDENTITY
 
 13 23 33  
(adj A) = 12 22 32
CCC 0 , a ≠ 1) 2. THE PRINCIPAL PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS :Let M
CCC
V. Imp. Theorem : A (adj. A) = (adj. A).A = |A| I , If A be a squaren
& N are arbitrary posiitive numbers , a > 0 , a ≠ 1 , b > 0 , b ≠ 1 and α is any
11 21 31
NOTE : loga1 = 0(a > 0 , a ≠ 1); logaa = 1(a > 0 , a ≠ 1) and log1/aa = - 1 (a >
CCC real number then ;
matrix of order n. Note : If A and B are non singular square matrices of same order, then (i) | adj −
A | = | A |n – 1(ii) adj (AB) = (adj B) (adj A) B is called the inverse (reciprocal) of A and is denoted by A 1. Thus

A 1 = B ⇔ AB = I = B A . We have , A . (adj A) = A In

(iii) adj(KA) = Kn–1(adj A), K is a scalar −

Inverse Of A Matrix (Reciprocal Matrix) :A square matrix A said to be invertible (non singular) if there exists a
A 1 A (adj A) = A 1In|Α|; In(adj A) = A 1 A In ∴ A 1 =
− − − − ()
matrix B such that, AB = I = BA
adj A
 || α M=
A
(iii) loga M = α . loga M (iv) logb log b
a
Note : The necessary and sufficient condition for a square matrix A to be invertible is that A≠
≠ 0. Imp.
− − −
NOTE : logba . logab = 1 ⇔ logba = 1/logab. logba . logcb . logac = 1 logyx . logzy . logaz
Theorem : If A & B are invertible matrices ofthe same order , then (AB) 1 = B 1 A 1. This is reversal law for = logax. ea
x

T −1 −1 T
= ax
ln
inverseNote :(i)If A be an invertible matrix , then ATis also invertible &(A ) = (A ) . (ii) If A is invertible, (a)
− − − −
3. PROPERTIES OF MONOTONOCITY OF LOGARITHM :
(A 1) 1 = A ; (b) (Ak) 1 = (A 1)k = A–k, k ∈ N (iii) If A is an Orthogonal Matrix. AAT = I = (i) For a > 1 the inequality 0 < x < y & logax < logay are equivalent.
−
ATAwww.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com (iv) A square matrix is said to be orthogonal if , A 1 = (ii) For 0 < a < 1 the inequality 0 < x < y & logax > logay are equivalent.
AT. (iii) If a > 1 then logax < p ⇒ 0 < x < ap
(iv) If a > 1 then logax > p ⇒ x > ap(v) If 0 < a < 1 then logax < p ⇒ x > ap (vi) If 0 < a < 1 then
|=
(v) | A–1 | A |1SYSTEM OF EQUATION & CRITERIAN FOR CONSISTENCY GAUSS - logax > p ⇒ 0 < x < ap
NOTE THAT :
JORDAN METHOD x + y + z = 6, x − y + z = 2, 2 x + y − z = 1
If the number & the base are on one side of the unity, then the logarithm is positive ; If the number & the base are
xyz on different sides of unity, then the logarithm is negative.
The base of the logarithm ‘a’ must not equal unity otherwise numbers not equal to unity will not have a logarithm
++ & any number will be the logarithm of unity.

or   For a non negative number 'a' & n ≥ 2 , n ∈ Nna = a1/n.
(i)loga(M . N) = loga M + loga N (ii) loga(M/N) = loga M − loga N ================================================================================
log M
a 8.PROBABILITY THINGS TO REMEMBER :RESULT − 1
      x= 
+−   126    −   zy  
−
xyz 2x y z  (i) SAMPLE–SPACE : The set of all
  (adj. A).B. possible outcomes of an experiment is
−+
= 
  211  called the SAMPLE–SPACE(S).
111111   126
− − − B= (iii) COMPLEMENT OF AN EVENT A : The set of all out comes which are in S but not in A is called the
AX = B ⇒ A 1 A X = A 1 B ⇒ X = A 1 |A|
COMPLEMENT OF THE EVENT A DENOTED BY A OR A . C

Note :(1)If A≠

≠ 0, system is consistent having unique solution (iv) COMPOUND EVENT : If A & B are two given events then A∩B is called COMPOUND EVENT and is denoted by A∩B
or AB or A & B .
(2)If A≠≠ 0 & (adj A) . B ≠ O (Null matrix) , system is consistent having unique non− trivial solution . (v) MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE EVENTS : Two events are said to be MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE (or disjoint or incompatible) if the
(3) If A≠≠ 0 & (adj A) . B = O (Null matrix) , system is consistent having trivial solution occurence of one precludes (rules out) the simultaneous occurence of the other . If A & B are two mutually
exclusive events then P (A & B) = 0.
(ii) EVENT : A sub set of sample−space is called an EVENT.

(vi) EQUALLY LIKELY EVENTS : Events are said to be (i) P(A or B or C) = P(A) + P(B)
ABC∩∩ CBA∩∩
+ P(C) −P(A∩B) −P(B∩C)−
EQUALLY LIKELY when each event is as likely to occur as ACB∩∩
any other event.
(vii) EXHAUSTIVE EVENTS : Events A,B,C ........ L are said to P(C∩A) + P(A∩B∩C)
be EXHAUSTIVE EVENTS if no event outside this set can ABC∩∩
result as an outcome of an experiment . For example, if A (ii) P (at least two of A,B,C occur) = P(B∩C) + P(C∩A) + ABC∩∩
& B are two Experiment Events E/L M/E Exhaustive 1. Throwing of
events defined on a sample space S, then A & B are P(A∩B) − 2P(A∩B∩C) a die No
exhaustive ⇒ A∪ B = S⇒ P (A∪ B) = 1 . (viii) CLASSICAL y A : throwing an odd face {1, 3, 5} N
DEF. OF PROBABILITY : If n represents the total number of A→ B : throwing a composite face {4,.
x y( ) +We say that ODDS IN FAVOUR OF A are x: y & odds 6}
equally likely , mutually exclusive and exhaustive
outcomes of an experiment and m of them are favourable against A are y : x Comparative study of Equally likely ,
Mutually Exclusive and Exhaustive events. E1 : getting a W ball N
to the happening of the event A, then the probability of
: getting a R ball
happening of the event A is given by P(A) = m/n . ABC∩∩ E2 E3 : getting
( ) x + y and P( A ) =
a G ball
Note : (1) 0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1 (2) P(A) + P( A ) = 1, Where A = U
Not A . (3) If x cases are favourable to A & y cases are
x
←B (iii) P(exactly two of A,B,C occur) = P(B∩C) + P(C∩A) + A : throwing a doublet Y
favourable to A then P(A) = {11, 22, 33, 44, 55, 66}
BAC∩∩ P(A∩B) − 3P(A∩B∩C)
RESULT − 3 B : throwing a total of 10
or more {46, 64, 55, 56, 65,
For any three events A,B and C we have (See Fig. 2)
 66} diamond C A B ∩ ∩ Fig. 2
E4 : getting a club
E1 : getting a heart www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com (iv)
: getting a spade A = getting a heart
E2 E3 : getting a B = getting a face card P(exactly one of A,B,C occurs) =
←C

2. A ball is drawn from AUB = A+ B = A or B denotes occurence of at least A or

an urn containing 2W, Yes 3R and 4G balls B. For 2 events A & B : (See fig.1)
(i) P(A∪B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A∩B) =
3. Throwing a pair of
dice
No P(A) + P(B) + P(C) − 2P(B∩C) − 2P(C∩A) − 2P(A∩B)+3P(A∩B∩C)
NOTE : If three events A, B and C are pair wise mutually exclusive then they must be mutually exclusive. i.e
4. From a well shuffled
pack of cards a card is Yes drawn P(A∩B) = P(B∩C) = P(C∩A) = 0 ⇒ P(A∩B∩C) = 0. However the converse of this is not true. RESULT − 4
INDEPENDENT EVENTS : Two events A & B are said to be independent if occurence or non occurence of one does not
5. From a well shuffled effect the probability of the occurence or non occurence of other. (i) If the occurence of one event affects the
pack of cards a card is No drawn probability of the occurence of the other event then the events are said to be DEPENDENT or CONTINGENT . For two
independent events
A and B : P(A∩B) = P(A). P(B). Often this is taken as the definition of independent events. (ii)

Three events A , B & C are independent if & only if all the following conditions hold ; P(A∩B) = P(A) .

P(B) ; P(B∩C) = P(B) . P(C)

P(C∩A) = P(C) . P(A) & P(A∩B∩C) = P(A) . P(B) . P(C)

i.e. they must be pairwise as well as mutually independent .
Similarly for n events A1 , A2 , A3 , ...... An to be independent , the number of
these conditions is equal to nc2 + nc3 + ..... + ncn = 2n − n − 1.
−
(iii)The probability of getting exactly r success in n independent trials is given by P(r) = nCr pr qn r where: p =
probability of success in a single trial q = probability of failure in a single trial. note : p + q = 1 Note :
Independent events are not in general mutually exclusive & vice versa.
Mutually exclusiveness can be used when the events are taken from the same experiment & independence
U
can be used when the events are taken from different experiments .
RESULT − 2www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com

P(A. B) + P( A .B) + P(A.B) = 1 − P( A . B) (ii) Opposite of′ " atleast A or B" RESULT − 5 : BAYE'S THEOREM OR TOTAL PROBABILITY THEOREM :
( ). /
ii
n
If an event A can occur only with one of the n mutually exclusive and
is NIETHER exhaustive events B1, B2, .... Bn & the probabilities P(A/B1) , P(A/B2) ....... A NOR B .e. A B+ = 1-(A or B) = A B ∩

P(A/Bn) are known then, P (B1/A) =( ) ∑

ABABBA∩∩∩ ()
P B P A B ( ). /
PBPAB
ii

AB∩
1
i
=

Note that P(A+B) + P( A B ∩ ) = 1.

Fig . 1 PROOF :The events A occurs with one of the n mutually exclusive & exhaustive events
B1,B2,B3,........Bn; A = AB1 + AB2 + AB3 + ....... + ABn
(iii) If A & B are mutually exclusive then P(A∪B) = P(A) + P(B). (iv) For any two n

events A & B, P(exactly one of A , B occurs) ∑

∩+∩=+− =PABPABPABPAB()()( )()
P(A/B) means conditional probability of A P(A) = P(AB1) + P(AB2) +.......+ P(ABn) =i = = P(Bi ) . P(A/Bi)
=PABPBAPAPBPAB( ) given B. (This can be easily seen from the 1

()()
figure)
cccc
∪−∩=∪−∩ NOTE : A ≡ event what we have ;
∩ (vi) DE MORGAN'S LAW : − If A & B are two
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )2 (v) If A & B are any two events P(A∩B) = B1 ≡ event what we want ; P(ABi )
subsets of a universal set U , then
P(A).P(B/A) = P(B).P(A/B), Where P(B/A) B2, B3, ....Bn are alternative event . Now, P(ABi
(a) (A∪B)c = Ac∩Bc & (b) (A∩B)c = Ac∪Bc ) = P(A) . P(Bi/A) B2
means conditional probability of B given A &
B1 B3 A
Bn−1Bn

= ()
PBPAB
= P B AP B P A B

PAi
(vii) A ∪ (B∩C) = (A∪B) ∩ (A∪C) & A ∩ (B∪C) = (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C) /( ) . / ()./
ii
iin
()
∑ P AB ( )

=
i 1 i
Fig . 3

PBA Domain of f = {aa ∈ A, (a, f(a)) ∈ f} Range of f = {f(a) a ∈ A, f(a) ∈ B}

()()() P B P A B /( ) . /

=
ii
It should be noted that range is a subset of co−domain . If only the rule of
∑
function is given then the domain of
RESULT − 7 (i) A PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION spells out how a total probability of 1 is distributed over several
PBPABi
()./
ii
values of a random variable .www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
RESULT − 6 If p1 and p2 are the probabilities of speaking the truth of two indenpendent witnesses A and B
pp the function is the set of those real numbers, where function is defined. For a continuous function, the
thenP (their combined statement is true) =
12 interval from minimum to maximum value of a function gives the range.
3. IMPORTANT TYPES OF FUNCTIONS :
( )( ) . In this case it has been (i) POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION :
pppp
− −
12+ − − 1 1 12
If a function f is defined by f (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn 1 + a2 xn 2 + ... + an−1 x + an where n is a non negative integer and
assumed that we have no knowledge of the event except the statement made by A and B. However a0, a1, a2, ..., an are real numbers and a0 ≠ 0, then f is called a polynomial function of degree n NOTE : (a) A
if p is the probability of the happening of the event before their statement then P (their
ppp
polynomial of degree one with no constant term is called an odd linear function . i.e. f(x) = ax, a ≠ 0
combined statement is true) = (b) There are two polynomial functions, satisfying the relation ;
12
f(x).f(1/x) = f(x) + f(1/x). They are :
1212
+ − − − ( )( )( ) 1 1 1 . (i) f(x) = xn + 1 & (ii) f(x) = 1 −xn , where n is a positive integer .
pppppp (ii) ALGEBRAIC FUNCTION :y is an algebraic function of x, if it is a function that satisfies an algebraicequation of the
−
Here it has been assumed that the statement given by all the independent witnesses can be given in two ways formP0 (x) yn + P1 (x) yn 1 + ....... + Pn−1 (x) y + Pn (x) = 0 Where n is a positive integer and P 0 (x), P1 (x) ...........
only, so that if all the witnesses tell falsehoods they agree in telling the same falsehood. If this is not the case are Polynomials in x.
and c is the chance of their coincidence testimony then the
e.g. y = x is an algebraic function, since it satisfies the equation y² − x² = 0.
Pr. that the statement is true = P p1 p2Pr. that the statement is false = (1−p).c (1−p1)(1−p2) However chance of
Note that all polynomial functions are Algebraic but not the converse. A function that is not algebraic is
coincidence testimony is taken only if the joint statement is not contradicted by any witness.
∑ px
ii

called TRANSCEDENTAL FUNCTION .www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com

gx
(iii) FRACTIONAL RATIONAL FUNCTION : A rational function is a function of the form. y = f (x) =
∑∑ ()
(ii)Mean of any probability distribution of a random variable is given by : ∝ = = pp x (),
hx
ii
i
where g (x) & h (x) are polynomials & h (x) ≠ 0.
( Since Σ pi = 1 ) (iii) Variance of a random variable is given by, σ² = ∑ ( xi − µ)² . pi σ² = ∑ pix²i− µ² ( Note
(iv) ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION : A function y = f (x) = x is called the absolute value function or
that SD = + σ2)(iv) The probability distribution for a binomial variate

Modulus function. It is defined as : y = x=

‘X’isgivenby;P(X=r)=

−
x if x
≥
n
Cr pr qn r where all symbols have the same meaning as given in result 4. The
0 


Pr
recurrence formula P rn r
()
1
p
+ − 1 , is very helpful for quickly computing
x if x
=+
0

q
( ). r
(V) EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION :A function f(x) = ax = ex ln a (a > 0 , a ≠ 1, x ∈ R) is called anexponential
−<
P(1) , P(2). P(3) etc. if P(0) is known . (v) Mean of BPD = np ; variance of BPD = npq . (vi) If p represents a function. The inverse of the exponential function is called the logarithmic function . i.e. g(x) = log a x . Note that
persons chance of success in any venture and ‘M’ the sum of money which he f(x) & g(x) are inverse of each other & their graphs are as shown .
will receive in case of success, then his expectations or probable value = pM (i) If a point is taken at random on a given staright line AB, the chance that it 45º
expectations = pM falls on a particular (0, 1) +∞
+∞
segment PQ of the line is PQ/AB . (ii) If a point is taken at random on the area
S which includes an area σ , the chance that the point falls on σ is σ/S .
RESULT − 8 : GEOMETRICAL APPLICATIONS : The following statements are (0, 1)
axiomatic : 45º
f(x) = ax , 0 < a < 1

g(x) = loga x
DEFINITION : (vi) SIGNUM FUNCTION :
9.FUNCTION S (1, 0)
(1, 0)
y = 1 if x > 0

THINGS TO REMEMBER : 1. GENERAL

finite value of the quantity y, then y is said to be 10

If to every value (Considered as real unless other−wise stated) of a variable x,
A function y= f (x) = Sgn (x) is defined as follows : for x
which belongs to some collection (Set) E, there corresponds one and only one >x
>
a function (Single valued) of x or a dependent argument or y = f (x) = for x
variable defined on the set E ; x is the 
  y = Sgn x
independent variable . If to every value of x belonging to some set E there corresponds one or several 1 0 for x
values of the variable y,
00 −<

= y = −1 if x < 0

then y is called a multiple valued function of x defined on E.Conventionally the word "FUNCTION” is used only as
It is also written as Sgn x = |x|/ x ; x ≠ 0 ; f (0) = 0
x
the meaning of a single valued function, if not otherwise stated. Pictorially : y

(vii) GREATEST INTEGER OR STEP UP FUNCTION :

The function y = f (x) = [x] is called the graph of y = [x]
 → input greatest 3

= less than or equal to x . Note that for :

()  → , y is called the image of x & x is the pre-image of y under f. Every function from A → B 1
fxy •
output º
satisfies the following conditions .
2
−1 ≤ x < 0 ; [x] = − 1 0 ≤ x < 1 ; [x] = 0

• •
integer function where [x] denotes the greatest integer
º º
(i) f ⊂ A x B (ii) ∀ a ∈ A ⇒ (a, f(a)) ∈ f and (iii)(a, b) ∈ f & (a, c) ∈ f ⇒ b 1 ≤ x < 2 ; [x] = 1 2 ≤ x < 3 ; [x] = 2 −3 −2 −1 1 2 x
=c

3
2. DOMAIN, CO−DOMAIN & RANGE OF A FUNCTION :
−2
Let f : A → B, then the set A is known as the domain of f & the set B is known as co-domain of f . The set of
•
all f images of elements of A is known as the range of f . Thus
Properties of greatest integer function :
−1 º
• (a) [x] ≤ x < [x] +1 and
and so on .
−3
º
 x−1 < [x] ≤ x , 0 ≤ x −[x] < 1
(b) [x+ m] = [x] + m if m is an integer . graph of y = {x} 1
(ii) e1/x R – { 0 } R+ – { 1 } (iii) ax , a > 0 R R+
y −−−
(d) [x] + [−x] = 0 if x is an integer
(iv) a1/x , a > 0 R – { 0 } R+ – { 1 } −
(c) [x] + [y] ≤ [x +y] ≤ [x] +[y] + 1
• −
º e.g. the fractional part of the no. 2.1 is
= −1 otherwise . −1 1 2
−
It is defined as :
ººº−
1
x
−− E. Logarithmic Functions (ii) logxa = xlog a
(viii) FRACTIONAL PART FUNCTION : −
(i) logax , (a > 0 ) (a ≠ 1) R+ R (a > 0 ) (a ≠ 1) R+ – { 1 } R – { 0 }
−

• ••• g (x) = {x} = x− [x] .

2.1− 2 = 0.1 and the fractional part of − 3.7 is 0.3. The period of this function is 1 and graph of thi s function is R – [0, 1 )
(ii)
as shown .www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com ]x[1 
4. DOMAINS AND RANGES OF COMMON FUNCTION : 1
Function Domain Range 
(y = f (x) ) (i.e. values taken by x) (i.e. values taken by f (x) ) A. Algebraic Functions  −∈ }0{In,
n
(i) xn , (n ∈ N) R = (set of real numbers) R , if n is odd
G. Fractional Part Functions
R+ ∪ {0} , if n is even
(ii)
F. Integral Part Functions Functions (i) { x } R [0, 1) }x{1R – I (1, ∞)
(i) [ x ] R I

1 (iii) n/1 H. Modulus Functions

(ii) n x Function Domain Range
, (n ∈ N) R – {0} R – {0} , if n is odd R+ , if n is even (y = f (x) ) (i.e. values taken by x) (i.e. values taken by f (x) )
x , (n ∈ N) R , if n is odd R , if n is odd (v) cosec x R – kπ , k ∈ I (– ∞ , – 1 ] ∪ [ 1 , ∞ ) (vi) cot x R – kπ , k ∈ I R
C. Inverse Circular Functions (Refer after Inverse is taught )
R+ ∪ {0} , if n is even R+ ∪ {0} , if n is even
Function Domain Range 
 ππ
x [–1, + 1] 
(y = f (x) ) (i.e. values taken by x) (i.e. values taken by f (x) ) 1, (n ∈ N) R – {0} , (i) sin–1 
−
2
if n is odd R – {0} , if n is odd
,
(iv) n/1 2
x
(ii) cos–1 x [–1, + 1] [ 0, π]
R+ , if n is even R+ , if n is even
B. Trigonometric Functions 
(i) sin x R [–1, + 1]  ππ
(ii) cos x R [–1, + 1] 
(iii) tan–1 x R 
πR − ,
22
(iii) tan x R – (2k + 1) Ik,
∈ 
2  ππ

x (– ∞ , – 1 ] ∪ [ 1 , ∞ ) 
(iv) cosec –1 
π(– ∞ , – 1 ] ∪ [ 1 , ∞ )
−
2
(iv) sec x R – (2k + 1) Ik,
∈ ,
2– { 0 }
2
 (iii) f(x) = g(x) , for every x belonging to their common domain. eg.
π
 2 x
are identical functions .
1
f(x) = x & g(x) = 2
x (– ∞ , – 1 ] ∪ [ 1 , ∞ ) [ 0, π] –
(v) sec–1  x
6. CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS : One −One Function (Injective mapping) : A function f : A → B is
(vi) cot –1 x R ( 0, π)
D. Exponential Functions said to be a one−one function or injective mapping if different elements of A have different f images in B .
(i) ex R R+
Thus for x1, x2 ∈ A & f(x1) ,
(i) | x | R R+ ∪ { 0 }
f(x2) ∈ B, f(x1) = f(x2) ⇔ x1 = x2 or x1≠ x2 ⇔ f(x1) ≠ f(x2) .
(ii) Diagramatically an injective mapping can be shown as
|x|1R – { 0 } R+
I. Signum Function

|x|≠ R {–1, 0 , 1} OR

= Note : (i) Any function which is entirely increasing or decreasing in whole domain, then f(x) is
sgn (x) 0x,
one−one .
x
=0,x=0 (ii) If any line parallel to x−axis cuts the graph of the function atmost at one point, then the
J. Constant Functionwww.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
say f (x) = c R { c } function is one−one .
5. EQUAL OR IDENTICAL FUNCTION : Many–one function :
Two functions f & g are said to be equal if :
(i) The domain of f = the domain of g. A function f : A → B is said to be a many one function if two or more elements of A have the same
(ii) The range of f = the range of g and
f image in B . Thus f : A → B is many one if for ; x1, x2 ∈ A, f(x1) = f(x2) but x1≠ x2 Diagramatically a many one (i) (f±g) (x) = f(x) ± g(x) (ii) (f. g) (x) = f(x) . g(x)
mapping can be shown as
 fx
  (x) =

OR ()
f ( )domain is {xx ∈ A ∩ B s. t g(x) ≠ 0} . g x
(iii) g

Note : (i) Any continuous function which has atleast one local maximum or local minimum, then f(x) is many−one . 8. COMPOSITE OF UNIFORMLY & NON-UNIFORMLY DEFINED FUNCTIONS : Let f : A → B & g : B

In other words, if a line parallel to x−axis cuts the graph of the function atleast at two points, then f is → C be two functions . Then the function gof : A → C defined by (gof) (x) = g (f(x)) ∀ x ∈ A is called the
many−one .www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com (ii) If a function is one−one, it cannot be x f x( )
composite of the two functions f & g . Diagramatically  →  → → g (f(x)) .Thus the image
many−one and vice versa .
of every x ∈ A under the

Onto function (Surjective mapping) : If the function f : A → B is such that each element in B (co−domain) If f : A → B is such that there exists atleast one element in co−domain which is not the image of any element

is the f image of atleast one element in A, then we say that f is a function of A 'onto' B . Thus f : A → B is
in domain, then f(x) is into .
Diagramatically into function can be shown as
surjective iff ∀ b ∈ B, ∃ some a ∈ A such that f (a) = b .
Diagramatically surjective mapping can be shown as
OR

OR Note that : If a function is onto, it cannot be into and vice versa . A polynomial of degree even will always
be into. Thus a function can be one of these four types :

Note that : if range = co−domain, then f(x) is onto.Into function :

(a) one−one onto (injective & surjective)
 (iii) The inverse of a bijection is also a bijection .
(b) one−one into (injective but not surjective)
(iv) If f & g two bijections f : A → B, g : B → C then the inverse of gof exists and (gof) 1 = f 1o g 1 13. ODD &
− − −

EVEN FUNCTIONS : If f (−x) = f (x) for all x in the domain of ‘f’ then f is said to be an even function. e.g. f (x) =
(c) many−one onto (surjective but not injective)
cos x ; g (x) = x² + 3 . If f (−x) = −f (x) for all x in the domain of ‘f’ then f is said to be an odd function. e.g. f (x) =
sin x ; g (x) = x3 + x .
(d) many−one into (neither surjective nor injective) NOTE : (a) f (x) − f (−x) = 0 => f (x) is even & f (x) + f (−x) = 0 => f (x) is odd . (b) A function may neither be odd

Note : (i) If f is both injective & surjective, then it is called a Bijective mapping. The bijective functions are also nor even .(c)Inverse of an even function is not defined (d) Every even function is symmetric about the y−axis
named as invertible, non singular or biuniform functions. (ii) If a set A contains n distinct elements then the & every odd function is symmetric about the origin .
number of different functions defined from A→A is n & out of it n ! are one one.
n (e) Every function can be expressed as the sum of an even & an odd function.

Identity function : The function f : A → A defined by f(x) = x ∀ x ∈ A is called the identity of A and is denoted e.g. f xf x f x f x f x
by IA. It is easy to observe that identity function is a bijection .
( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Constant function : A function f : A → B is said to be a constant function if every element of A has the same f +−
image in B . Thus f : A → B ; f(x) = c , ∀ x ∈ A, c ∈ B is a constant function. Note that the range of a constant = +− −
function is a singleton and a constant function may be one-one or many-one, onto or into . 7. ALGEBRAIC 22
OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS :
If f & g are real valued functions of x with domain set A, B respectively, then both f & g are defined inA
∩ B. Now we define f+ g , f−g , (f. g) & (f/g) as follows : (f) only function which is defined on the entire number line & is even and odd at the same time is f(x)= 0. (g) If f
and g both are even or both are odd then the function f.g will be even
function gof is the g−image of the f−image of x . but if any one of them is odd then f.g will be odd .
14. PERIODIC FUNCTION : A function f(x) is called periodic if there exists a positive number T (T > 0) called
Note that gof is defined only if ∀ x ∈ A, f(x) is an element of the domain of g so that we can take its g- the period of the function such that f(x+T) = f(x), for all values of x within the domain of x e.g. The function sin x &
image. Hence for the product gof of two functions f & g, the range of f must be a subset of the domain of g. cos x both are periodic over 2π & tan x is periodic over π NOTE : (a) f (T) = f (0) = f (−T) , where ‘T’ is the period .
PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS :
(b) Inverse of a periodic function does not exist .www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com (c)
(i) The composite of functions is not commutative i.e. gof ≠ fog . Every constant function is always periodic, with no fundamental period .
(ii) The composite of functions is associative i.e. if f, g, h are three functions such that fo (goh) & (fog) oh
are defined, then fo (goh) = (fog) oh . (d) If f(x) has a period T & g (x) also has a period T then it does not mean that f(x)+g(x) must have a period T
(iii) The composite of two bijections is a bijection i.e. if f & g are two bijections such that gof is defined, . e.g. f(x) = sinx + cosx.
then gof is also a bijection.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com 9. HOMOGENEOUS
FUNCTIONS : 1
(e) If f(x) has a period p, then f (x)and f (x) also has a period p .
A function is said to be homogeneous with respect to any set of variables when each of its terms is of the
same degree with respect to those variables . (f) if f(x) has a period T then f(ax + b) has a period T/a (a > 0) .
15. GENERAL : If x, y are independent variables, then :
For example 5 x2 + 3 y2 − xy is homogeneous in x & y . Symbolically if,
f(tx , ty) = tn . f(x , y) then f(x , y) is homogeneous function of degree n . −1
−1 −1
−1 −1
−1
x ≤ −1 , x ≥ 1 (ii) sec x = cos x ≤ −1 , x ≥ 1 (iii) cot x = tan
1 1 1
10. BOUNDED FUNCTION : P−2 (i) cosec x = sin x; x; x; x>0
A function is said to be bounded if f(x)≤
≤ M , where M is a finite quantity .
11. IMPLICIT & EXPLICIT FUNCTION : −1
1
A function defined by an equation not solved for the dependent variable is called an IMPLICIT FUNCTION . For = π + tan x; x<0
eg. the equation x3 + y3 = 1 defines y as an implicit function. If y has been expressed in terms of x alone then
it is called an EXPLICIT FUNCTION. − − − − − −
P−3 (i) sin 1(−x) = − sin 1 x , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 (ii) tan 1(−x) = − tan 1 x , x ∈ R (iii) cos 1(−x) = π − cos 1 x , −1 ≤ x ≤
12. INVERSE OF A FUNCTION : Let f : A → B be a one−one & onto function, then their exists a unique function
− − − − π − − π
g : B → A such that f(x) = y ⇔ g(y) = x, ∀ x ∈ A & y ∈ B . Then g is said to be inverse of f . Thus g = f 1 :
−
1(iv) cot 1(−x) = π − cot 1 x , x ∈ R P−4 (i) sin 1 x + cos 1 x = 2−1 ≤ x ≤ 1 (ii) tan 1 x + cot 1 x = 2x ∈ R (iii)

B → A = {(f(x), x)  (x, f(x)) ∈ f} . −1

−1 −1 π −1 −1
= 2x≥
≥
x
cosec x + sec x 1www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com P−5 tan x + tan y = tan
PROPERTIES OF INVERSE FUNCTION : (i) The inverse of a bijection is unique . (ii) If f : A → B is a bijection &
g : B → A is the inverse of f, then fog = IB and gof = IA , where IA & IBare identity functions on the sets A & B
y
xy
respectively. +
Note that the graphs of f & g are the mirror images of each other in the line y = x . As shown in the figure
given below a point (x ',y ' ) corresponding to y = x2 (x >0) changes to (y ',x ' ) corresponding
1 −where x > 0 , y > 0 & xy < 1
to y x = + , the changed form of x = y .
−1
xy
= π + tan xy
 +
22


 ⇒ where x ≥ 0 ,y≥0 & (x2 + y2) ≤ 1

1 −where x > 0 , y > 0 & xy > 1
−1 −1 −1
P−6 (i) sin x + sin y = sin x 1 y y 1 x

− −
−1 −+−
tan 1 x − tan 1y = tan
xy
xy

− − π
−
Note that : x2 + y2 ≤ 1 ⇒ 0 ≤ sin 1 x + sin 1 y ≤ 2

1 +where x > 0 , y > 0

(i) f(xy) = f(x) + f(y) ⇒ f(x) = k ln x or f(x) = 0 . 

22

−
(ii) f(xy) = f(x) . f(y) ⇒ f(x) = xn, n ∈ R(iii) f(x+ y) = f(x) . f(y) ⇒ f(x) = akx. (iv) f(x + y) = f(x) + where x > 0 , y > 0
f(y) ⇒ f(x) = kx, where k is a constant . 122

sin x 1− y − y 1− x
10.INVERSE TRIGONOMETRY FUNCTION GENERAL
− − −
(iv) cos 1 x + cos 1 y = cos 1 [ ]
DEFINITION(S):1. sin 1 x , cos 1 x , tan 1 x etc. denote angles or real numbers whose sine is x , whose cosine is x and − − −

whose tangent is x, provided that the answers given are numerically smallest available . These are also written as arc 22
sinx , arc cosx etc .
If there are two angles one positive & the other negative having same numerical value, then positive angle xy ∓ 1−x 1−y where x ≥ 0 , y ≥ 0
should be taken .
− ⇒
2. PRINCIPAL VALUES AND DOMAINS OF INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS :(i)y = sin 1 x π π   1if, x >0,y>0,z>0 & xy+yz+zx<1


where −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 ; − ≤ ≤ −1 −1 −1
−1
P−7 If tan x + tan y + tan z = tan x y z xy z
y and sin y = x .
22
++−
−1
(ii) y = cos x where −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 ; 0 ≤ y ≤ π and cos y = x .
−−−
 2 2
 ⇒where x≥0,y ≥ 0 & x + y > 1 xy y z zx
− − − − − −
(ii) sin 1 x + sin 1 y = π − sin 1 x 1 y y 1 x Note : (i) If tan 1 x + tan 1 y + tan 1 z = π then x + y + z = xyz

−+−
− − − π
(ii) If tan 1 x + tan 1 y + tan 1 z = 2then xy + yz + zx = 1
π − −
Note that : x2 + y2 >1 ⇒ 2< sin 1 x + sin 1 y < π −1
1
+ x= cos 122

(iii) sin–1x – sin–1y = [ ]

−
−1
−1 −1
P−8 2 tan x = sin 2 x= tan 2
x x
x and tan y = x . x
ππ
22
+ − xNote very carefully that : 1
2

−1
(iii) y = tan x where x ∈ R ; − < < 12

 −
1
ππ
− 
(iv) y = cosec 1 x where x ≤ − 1 or x ≥ 1 ; − ≤ ≤ x if x 2 1

tan  −
y , y ≠ 0 and cosec y = x ≤ 1

2 0 x if x
x= 

22
 −1 −1
x tan
1 ≥
sin 2 cos 122

−
−
1 x

()
=
+x

−>21

−
1
12 tan x if x
−<20

tan
x if x
+

− π
(v) y = sec 1 x where x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1 ; 0 ≤ y ≤ π ; y ≠ 2and sec y = x .
−
1

−+<−
21
π
 tan x if x

−
(vi) y = cot 1 x where x ∈ R , 0 < y < π and cot y = x .
−
1
NOTE THAT : (a) 1st quadrant is common to all the inverse functions . 2tan x if x 1
 <
−x
=
()   − π− >

−1
(b) 3rd quadrant is not used in inverse x
functions . −
tan 2 1

π+ < − 2tan x if x 1
12

−
1

22
π

(c) 4th quadrant is used in the CLOCKWISE DIRECTION i.e. − ≤ ≤ ππ

− −
2y 0 . (v) cos 1(cos x) = x ; 0 ≤ x ≤ π (vi) tan 1(tan x) = x ; − < <
−
3. PROPERTIES OF INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS : P−1 (i) sin (sin 1 x) = x , −1 ≤ x ≤ x
22
−1
1 (ii) cos (cos x) = x , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 2tan x if x 1

ππ − − − − − −
3 π
−1 −1
REMEMBER THAT : (i) sin 1 x + sin 1 y + sin 1 z = 2 ⇒ x = y = z = 1 (ii) cos 1 x + cos 1 y + cos 1 z = 3π
(iii) tan (tan x) = x , x ∈ R (iv) sin (sin x) = x , − ≤ ≤
− − − − − − π
⇒ x = y = z = −1 (iii) tan 1 1 + tan 1 2 + tan 1 3 = π and tan 1 1 + tan 1 2+ tan 1 3= 2
x 1 1
1. y = sin ππ
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
2. y = cos 1x , x≤
−
SOME USEFUL GRAPHS
,
≤ 1 , y ∈ [0 , π]
−
⇒

−1
y∈ 22
− −
x , x≤
≤ 1,

 9. (a) y = tan (tan 1x) , x ∈ R , y ∈ R , y is aperiodic 9. (b)y = tan 1(tan x) , = x
=x

ππ
π y∈−
,

x ∈ R − (2 1)2 n − n ∈ I
 
   
  ,
  , periodic with period π 2 2

x≥
≥ 1 , y≥
≥ 1, y is aperiodic
 ππ ,,
−1 y∈−
3. y = tan x , x ∈ R ,
y ∈
−

x ε R − { nπ , n ε I },    ⇒
ππ   ∪  
, −
4. y = cot 1x , x ∈ R , y ∈ (0 , π) 2 2

− −
10. (a) y = cot 1(cot x) , 10. (b) y = cot (cot 1x) , = x = x

x ∈ R − {nπ} , y ∈ (0 , π) , periodic with π x ∈ R , y ∈ R , y is aperiodic

− −
11. (a) y = cosec 1(cosec x), 11. (b) y = cosec (cosec 1x) , = x = x
ππ

y ∈
00
2 2
5. y = sec x , x≥
−1
≥ 1,
  00
  ∪  2 2

y is periodic with period 2 π

y ∈ −
6. y = cosec 1x , x≥
−
≥ 1,
π ππ   
  ∪  ⇒

0, , −
2 2 ⇒ ,, 7.(b) y = sin (sin 1x) ,
22
,,

ππ

−
7. (a) y = sin 1(sin x) , x ∈ R , y ∈ −⇒
 − −
12. (a) y = sec 1(sec x) , 12. (b) y = sec (sec 1x) , = x = x π   
y ∈   ∪ 
y is periodic with period 2π ; x≥
≥ 1 ; y≥
≥ 1], y is aperiodic
− −
Periodic with period 2 π = x x ∈ [− 1 , 1] , y ∈ [− 1 , 1] , y is aperiodic 8. (a) y = cos 1(cos x), x ∈ R, y ∈[0, π], 8. (b) y = cos (cos 1x) , = x periodic x ∈ [− 1 , 1] , y ∈ [−1 , 1], y is aperiodic
 
with period 2 π = x  

x ∈ R – (2 1)2
n−n∈I

ππ
π

0, ,
2 2 ⇒

357
11. Limit and Continuity 246
(vi) tan x = xx x 3 5
xxx 2
cos =−+−+1 -1
15........(vii)tan x = xx x x
(v) !! 2! 4 6

+++3 −+−+
.......
& Differentiability of Function 357
246
x ...... 232 252 2 27 1 3
... -1
....... (ix) sec x =12!54616
1 135 xxx
THINGS TO REMEMBER : 5! +
f(x) = finite quantity.
xa→
(viii) sin x = x x x x + + + +
-1 Limit
1. Limit of a function f(x) is said to exist as, x→a when
7!
++++ f(x) = Limit
−

(CONTINUITY)
xa→
3
!
! !......

2. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS ON LIMITS : THINGS TO REMEMBER : Limit

x→a g (x) = m. If l & m exists then :
Limit 1. A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x = c, if f(x) = f(c). Symbolically
Let Limit
xa→ f(x) ± g (x) = l ± m (ii)
Limit
xa→ f(x) = l &
(i)
Limit fx() f is continuous at x = c if Limit f(c - h) = Limit f(c+h) = f(c). cx →
x→a f(x). g(x) = l. m

Limit h0
(iii) xa→
→
h0

( )= , provided m ≠ 0www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com →

ggm
Limit
(iv) xa→ f(x) ; where k is a constant.
Limit
xa→ k f(x) = k 
i.e. LHL at x = c = RHL at x = c equals Value of ‘f’ at x = c. It should be noted that continuity of a function at x = a is meaningful only if the function is defined in the immediate
neighbourhood of x = a, not necessarily at x = a.
Limit  2. Reasons of discontinuity:www.MathsBySuhag.com ,
(v)  
www.TekoClasses.com
Limit g x
xa→ f[g(x)] = f
xa→ Limit (i) Limit cx
For example
 →
  
( ) = f(m) ; provided f is continuous at g (x) = m. f(x) does not exist

Limit f x
xa→ l n (f(x) = l n
() xa→ cx
l n l (l > 0). Limit f(x) ≠ i.e. → − +
Limit f (x) →
3. STANDARD LIMITS : cx

Limit Limit Limit Limit

(a) x→0
x=1= x= x= x [ Where x is measured in radians ] ≠ f (c)
→ f(x)
x→0 x→0 x→0

sinx (ii) f(x) is not defined at x= c Limit

tanx − −
tan 1x sin 1x (iii)x c
(1 + h )n → ∞
Limit Geometrically, the graph of the function will exhibit a break at x= c. h →
(b) n →∞
0

h → Limit
n →∞
0
(1 - h )n = 0and x→0 (1 + x)1/x = e=
Limit
Limit ax
)x( e)x(f
 x Limit
  x note however the re +
The graph as shown is discontinuous at x = 1 , 2 and 3. 3. Types of
x→∞ 11
Limit Discontinuities :
(c) If

[ ] ]1)x(f)[x(
Limit
x→a f(x) = 1 and
→
Limit
Limit Type - 1: ( Removable type of discontinuities)
φ → −φ (d) If

= xa→ φ (x) = ∞ , then ; ax

Limit Limit In case f(x) exists but is not equal to f(c) then the function is said
xa→ f(x) = A > 0 &
φ(x) Limit Limit cx to have a removable discontinuity
xa→ [f(x)] = ez where z = →
xa→ φ (x) = B (a finite quantity) then ;

or discontinuity of the first kind. In this case we can redefine the function such that Limit cx
xa→ φ (x). ln[f(x)] = eBlnA = AB f(x) = f(c) &
−1
nn
Limit Limit
xa −1
−1 −=
(e) 0x
x
= 1n a (a > 0). In particular 0x
x
= 1 (f)x a Limit −n
e →
a

→ → → na make it continuous at x= c. can be further classified as : (a) MISSING POI NT DISCONTINUITY

xa
x x Removable type of discontinuity Limit : Whereax
4. SQUEEZE PLAY THEOREM :
→ f(x) exists finitely but f(a) is not defined.
Limit
If f(x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) ∀ x &
( x1 )
e.g. f(x) = )x9()x1(2
Limit
xa→ f(x) = l =

xa→ h(x) then

Limit −− sin x
has a missing point discontinuity at x = 1 , and f(x) =

xa→ g(x) = l. − (i) We cannot plot ∞ on the paper. Infinity (∞) is a symbol & not a number. It
5. INDETERMINANT FORMS : discontinuity at x = 0 does not obey the laws of elementry algebra.
0
0, , , , , 0 0 1 (ii) ∞ + ∞ = ∞ (iii) ∞ × ∞ = ∞ (iv) (a/∞) = 0 if a is finite
∞ a
(v) 0 is not defined , if a ≠ 0. (vi)ab = 0 , if & only if a = 0 or b = 0 and a & b
are finite.
∞∞ ° ∞° ∞ − ∞
∞

Limit (b) ISOLATED POINT DISCONTINUITY : Whereax

x and
x has a missing point → f(x) exists & f(a) also exists but ; ax
Note :
Limit
→
− −
2 , x ≠ 4 & f (4) = 9 has an isolated point discontinuity at x = 4.
= ≠ f(a). e.g. f(x)
x 416x

 0
if x I ∈

6. The following strategies should be born in mind for evaluating the limits: Similarly f(x) = [x] + [ –x] =
 has an isolated point discontinuity at all x∈ I. − ∉
(a) Factorisation (b) Rationalisation or double rationalisation
1 if x I
(c) Use of trigonometric transformation ; Limit
appropriate substitution and using standard limits In casecx
(d) Expansion of function like Binomial expansion, exponential & logarithmic expansion, expansion of sinx , cosx ,
tanx should be remembered by heart & are given below : → f(x) does not exist then it is not possible to make the function continuous by redefining it. Such
Type-2: ( Non - Removable type of discontinuities) discontinuities are known as non - removable discontinuity oR
2233

x na x n a x n a 1 1 1
(i) a a x= + + + + > 1 1 2! 30

23
discontinuity of the 2nd kind. Non-removable type of discontinuity can be
further classified as :
x =++++1
! !......... (ii) e x x x 1 2! 3

............
!!

−1 1
(a) Finite discontinuity e.g. f(x) = x − [x] at all integral x ; f(x) = tan x at x =

0 and f(x) =x1 1

at x = 0 (
234 357x xx
(iii) ln (1+x) = xx x x
......... 1 1 (iv) sin
234 !
− + − + − < ≤ for x = − + − + 3 5! 7! note that f(0+) = 0 ; f(0–) = 1 ) 12+
x x .......

open interval (a , b).

π
x−4
tanx cosx or g(x) =1 2
(x − )at x = 4 ; f(x) = 2 at x = 2and f(x) = 4
(ii) If K is any real number between f(a) & f(b), then there exists at least one solution of the equation f(x) = K in the
(b) Infinite discontinuity e.g. f(x) =1 open inetrval (a , b).
x = 0. 8. SINGLE POINT CONTINUITY:
(c) Oscillatory discontinuity e.g. f(x) = sin x if x Q
x1at x = 0. Functions which are continuous only at one point are said to exhibit single point continuity − ∉and g(x) =

xat

In all these cases the value of f(a) of the function at x= a (point of ∈

discontinuity) may or may not exist but 0 ∉are both continuous only at x = 0.
x if x Q ∈
e.g.f(x)=

Limit x a does not exist. x if x Q if x Q

→ THINGS TO REMEMBER :
Note: From the adjacent graph note that 1. Right hand & Left hand Derivatives ; By definition:
– f is continuous at x = – 1
– f has isolated discontinuity at x = 1 f(a + h)−f(a)if it exist
– f has missing point discontinuity at x = 2 Limit
– f has non removable (finite type) f ′(a) = h 0
discontinuity at the origin.
4. In case of dis-continuity of the second kind the non-negative difference between the value of the RHL at x = c & →
h
LHL at x = c is called THE JUMP OF DISCONTINUITY. A function having a finite number of jumps in a given
interval I is called a PIECE WISE CONTINUOUS or SECTIONALLY CONTINUOUS function in this interval. (i) The right hand derivative of f ′ at x = a

DIFFERENTIABILITY denoted by f ′(a+) is defined by :

Limit
f(a + h)−f(a), h
5. All Polynomials, Trigonometrical functions, exponential & Logarithmic
functions are continuous in their domains.
f ' (a+) = → + h 0
()
6. If f & g are two functions that are continuous at x= c then the functions defined by : F1(x) = f(x) ± g(x) ; F2(x) = K
provided the limit exists & is finite.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com (ii) The left
f(x) , K any real number ; F3(x) = f(x).g(x) are also continuous at x= c. Further, if g (c) is not zero, thenF4(x) hand derivative : of f at x = a denoted by
fx
= f(a h) f(a)
Limit
( )is also continuous atx= c. g x − −, Provided the limit exists & is finite.
f ′(a+) is defined by : f ' (a–) = → +

−
h0 h

discontinuous at x = a. e.g.f(x) = − g(x) =

7. The intermediate value theorem: 10
Suppose f(x) is continuous on an interval I , and a and b are any two points of I. Then if y 0is a number
between f(a) and f(b) , their exists a number c between a and b such that f(c) = y 0.NOTE VERY CAREFULLY
THAT :www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com We also write f ′(a+) = f ′+(a) & f ′(a–) = f ′_(a).
(a) If f(x) is continuous & g(x) is discontinuous
* This geomtrically means that a unique tangent with finite slope can be drawn at x = a as shown in the
at x = a then the product function φ(x) = f(x). g(x) figure.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com

sinπ x ≠ (iii) Derivability & Continuity :

is not necessarily be discontinuous at x = a. e.g. f(x) = x & g(x) = x x =
(a) If f ′(a) exists then f(x) is derivable at x= a ⇒ f(x) is continuous at x = a.

(b) If a function f is derivable at x then f is continuous at x.
0

00 f(x + h)−f(x)exists.
Limit
(b) If f(x) and g(x) both are discontinuous at x = a then the product function φ(x) = f(x). g(x) is not necessarily be
 For : f ′(x) = h 0 f(x h) f(x)
→ +−
h

+−= −<

x
≥
h
f(x h) f(x) ≠ f(x h) f(x)
Also .h[h 0] ==

10x

+−h
(c) Point functions are to be treated as discontinuous. eg. Continuous function whose domain is closed must have a Limit

f(x) = 1−x+ x−1 is not continuous at x = 1. (d) A

range also in closed interval. Therefore : [f(x + h)−f(x)]= h 0 →
.h f'(x).0 0

Limit
Limit
(e) If f is continuous at x = c & g is continuous at x = f(c) then the composite g[f(x)] is continuous at x = c. eg.

→ [f(x + h)−f(x)]= 0 ⇒ h 0
Therefore h 0
+ 2& g(x) = x are continuous at x = 0 , hence the composite (gof) (x) =
2 xx
xx
f(x) =
sin
→f (x+h) = f(x) ⇒ f is continuous at x.

x sin “ IF f IS CONTINUOUS AT x , THEN f IS DERIVABLE AT x ” IS NOT

1
TRUE. e.g. the functions f(x) = x & g(x) = x sinx ; x ≠ 0 & g(0) = 0 are
2
x + 2will also be
continuous at x = 0 .www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com 7. Note : If f(x) is derivable for every point of its domain of definition, then it is continuous at
CONTINUITY IN AN INTERVAL : continuous in that domain. The Converse of the above result is not true :
xb
(a) A function f is said to be continuous in (a , b) if f is continuous at each & every point ∈(a,b). (b) A function f is
Note that a function f which is continuous in[a , b] possesses the following properties : (i) If f(a) & f(b) possess
said to be continuous in a closed interval[a , b] if : opposite signs, then there exists at least one solution of the equation f(x) = 0 in the
(i) f is continuous in the open interval (a , b) &
Limit x = 0 but not derivable at x = 0.
f(x) = f(a) = a finite quantity. NOTE CAREFULLY :
(ii) f is right continuous at ‘a’ i.e. → + (a) Let f ′+(a) = p & f ′_(a) = q where p & q are finite then : (i) p = q ⇒ f is derivable at x = a ⇒ f is continuous at x =
xa a. (ii) p ≠ q ⇒ f is not derivable at x = a.
Limit It is very important to note that f may be still continuous at x = a. In short, for a function f :
f(x) = f(b) = a finite quantity.
derivability ;
(iii) f is left continuous at ‘b’ i.e. → − Differentiability ⇒ Continuity ; Continuity⇒/

()()
discontinuous ; But discontinuity ⇒ Non derivability
Non derivibality⇒/
d
dv
(iv)
 dx
du
vu


  =−2 where v ≠ 0 known as “ QUOTIENT RULE ”
u
dx
(b) If a function f is not differentiable but is continuous at x = a it geometrically implies a sharp corner at d x
v
v
x = a.
(i) for the points a and b, f ′(a+) & f ′(b −) exist &
3. DERIVABILITY OVER AN INTERVAL :
f (x) is said to be derivable over an interval if it is derivable at each & every point of the interval f(x) is said
to be derivable over the closed interval [a, b] if : (ii) for any point c such that a < c < b, f ′(c+) & f′(c −) exist & are equal.
NOTE : 5. DERIVATIVE OF STANDARDS FUNCTIONS :
−
1. If f(x) & g(x) are derivable at x = a then the functions f(x) + g(x), f(x) − g(x) , f(x).g(x) will also be derivable at x (i) D (xn) = n.xn 1 ; x ∈ R, n ∈ R, x > 0 (ii) D (ex) = ex

= a & if g (a) ≠ 0 then the function f(x)/g(x) will also be derivable at x = a. 2. If f(x) is differentiable at x = a & g(x) 1
(iii) D (ax) = ax. ln a a > 0 (iv) D (ln x) = x(v) D (logax) = xlogae
1

is not differentiable at x = a , then the product function F(x) = f(x). g(x) can still be differentiable at x = a e.g. f(x) =
(vi) D (sinx) = cosx (vii) D (cosx) = − sinx (viii) D = tanx = sec²x (ix) D (secx) = secx .
x & g(x) = x.
tanx (x) D (cosecx) = − cosecx . cotx
3. If f(x) & g(x) both are not differentiable at x = a then the product function ;
F(x) = f(x). g(x) can still be differentiable at x = a e.g. f(x) = x & g(x) = x. (xi) D (cotx) = − cosec²x (xii) D (constant) = 0 where D = d x
d

4. If f(x) & g(x) both are non-deri. at x = a then the sum function F(x) = f(x) + g(x) may be a differentiable function. 6. INVERSE FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES :
.
e.g. f(x) = x & g(x) = −x www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com 5. If f(x) is derivable at x = a ⇒/ (a) Theorem : If the inverse functions f & g are defined by y = f(x) & x = g(y) & if f′(x) exists & f ′(x) ≠ 0

f ′(x) is continuous at x = a.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com 1

then g ′(y) =
dy dy du
(v) If y = f(u) & u = g(x) then dx du dx
=.“ CHAIN RULE ” dy dy
f x( ) ′ . This result can also be written as, if dx exists & dx≠ 0 , then

 dx
    dy dx dy dx dx
21
0 sin ≠ =   = =   dxor dx dyor dx dy dy dy

x if x 1/.11/[]≠0
e.g. f(x) =
=
x if x dy

00 (i) D x − < < 12
6. A surprising result : Suppose that the function f (x) and g (x) defined in − −
the interval (x1, x2) containing the point x0, and if f is differentiable at x = x0 =− =
with f (x0) = 0 together with g is continuous as x = x0 then 1 (sin ) , x
1 1 (ii) D x − < < 12
(b) Results : 1 the function F (x) = f (x) · g (x) is differentiable at x = x0 (cos ) , x 1 1
1
−
x
1
−
x
e.g. F (x) = sinx · x2/3 is differentiable at x = 0.

12. DIFFERENTIATION
1
1
1
1

(iii) D xx
Dx
1(iv) xx
−
− =
(tan ) , x R =+∈ 2
(sec ) , x >

1
−
2 1

− −
& L' HOSPITAL RULE −

1
=− (cot ) , x R = +∈

1 1 1
(v) D ec x >
(cos ) , x
Dx
1 (vi) x2

−
xx 1 1
2
1. DEFINITION : dy du
Note : In general if y = f(u) then dx = f′(u) . dx .
If x and x+ h belong to the domain of a function f defined by y = f(x), then
Limit h→0 7. LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIATION : To find the derivative of : fxhfx
fxhfx (i) a function which is the product or quotient of a number of functions OR (ii) ( ) ( ) + − h
()()+− a function of the form [f(x)]g(x) where f & g are both derivable, it will be found
if it exists , is called the DERIVATIVE of f at x & is denoted by f′(x) or convinient to take the logarithm of the function first & then differentiate. This is called
Limit LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIATION.
dy have therefore , f′(x) = h→0
dx . We h
2. The derivative of a given function f at a point x = a of its domain is defined as :
8. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION : φ (x , y) = 0
Limit h→0 together on one side to finally find
fahfa
−, provided the limit exists. x a
()()+− Note that alternatively, we can define f′(a) = Limit x a →
, provided the limit exists & is denoted by f′(a) . h dy/dx.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
(i) In order to find dy/dx, in the case of implicit functions, we differentiate fxfa (ii) In answers of dy/dx in the case of implicit functions, both x & y are
each term w.r.t. x regarding y as a functions of x & then collect terms in dy/dx ( ) ( ) − present .
3. DERIVATIVE OF f(x) FROM THE FIRST PRINCIPLE /ab INITIO METHOD: f x x f x /

9. PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION : θ

= θ.
dy
If y = f(θ) & x = g(θ) where θ is a parameter , then dx dy d

Limit Limit dx d dy d x
If f(x) is a derivable function then, x= / /
y
δ 10. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION W.R.T. = = d z dx
δ →x 0 ANOTHER FUNCTION :
δ →x 0 /
( ) ( ) + −δ 4. THEOREMS ON DERIVATIVES : If u and v are fx
'( )
dy
derivable function of x, then,
δ
δ = f′(x) = dx x
Let y = f(x) ; z = g(x) then
dy
dz '( ) . g x

. = ± known
d du dv
(i) d xu v dx dx as “ PRODUCT RULE ”
d du 11. DERIVATIVES OF ORDER TWO & THREE :
( ) ± = ± (ii) d xK u K dx

()=, where K is any constant Let a function y = f(x) be defined on an open interval (a, b). It’s derivative, if it exists on (a, b) is a certain function f ′
(x) [or (dy/dx) or y ] & is called the first derivative of y w.r.t. x.If it happens that the first derivative has a derivative

(iii) ( ) d xu v u dxv dx on (a , b) then this derivative is called the second derivative of y w. r. t. x & is denoted by f ′′(x) or (d2y/dx2) or y ′
d dv du

′.Similarly, the 3rd order

3
dy 
derivative of y w. r. t. x , if it exists, is defined by =     It is also denoted by f′′′(x) or y ′′′.
2
 −
d dy 1

21
<
dx dx dx 2
-1 x tan 
3 (iii) y = f(x) = tan 2 x x
−
1

()
=
−x

+<−
21
12 tan xx
π
−
fxgxhx 1

−−>21
()()()

12. If F(x)= ()()()uxvxwx ,where f,g,h,l,m,n,u,v,w are  tan

π
lxmxnx differentiable functions of x then HIGHLIGHTS : xx

( ) ( ) ( ) f x g x h x '( ) '( ) '( ) fxgxhx()()() 

(a) Domain is R - {1 , -1} & π π  
fxgxhx()()() 
F′(x) =
lxmxnx()()() + l x m x n x '( ) '( ) '( ) + lxmxnx()()() range is − ,
22
uxvxwx()()() uxvxwx()()() u x v x w x '( ) '( ) '( ) (b) f is neither continuous
13. L’ HOSPITAL’S RULE :www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com nor diff. at x = 1 ,- 1
If f(x) & g(x) are functions of x such that :
2

Limit Limit dy x
(i) x→af(x) =∞= (c) d x=  x
Limit 2
x→ag(x) OR 1 1 +≠

=
Limit  1
x→af(x) =0= x→ag(x) and non existent x
(ii) Both f(x) & g(x) are continuous at x = a &
(d) I ∀ x in its domain (e) It is bound for all x

 1
1
−

− + −≤≤−
( )
31
π
sin 

(iii) Both f(x) & g(x) are differentiable at x = a &
x if x
2

(IV) y = f(x) = sin (3 x − 4 x3) = 3

−1
1
sin
(iv) Both f ′(x) & g ′(x) are continuous at x = a , Then
− x if x − ≤ ≤
1
1

−
1 2 2
1

−≤≤31

Limit () '( ) sin gx x→a HIGHLIGHTS :www.MathsBySuha

Limit Limit f x "( ) x if x 2 x→a g.com , www.TekoClasses.com
( )= '( )= gx "( )& soon till indeterminant form
x→a
fx fx  vanishes. g x
14. ANALYSIS AND GRAPHS OF SOME USEFUL FUNCTIONS :
(a) Domain is x ∈ [− 1 , 1] & π π


≤ − 
− range is  ⇒
1

  ( )
 x x  =

21
tan
,
22
−1
(i) y = f(x) = sin 2

x
−
1

π −>21

12 tan xx
+x
1
1
−
(b) Not derivable at x = 2

−+<−
21
π
 tan 3
1
HIGHLIGHTS : xx 1


d x=( )
∈−
 x ,
(a) Domain is x ∈ R &  xif x
−
2
dy 1 2 1
(c) 3 2 1

()()
−∈−−
if x ,∪,
21 1
ππ

−
 
range is  ⇒
2
2
,
−
1

22
(b) f is continuous for −

(d) Continuous everywhere in its domain 

1
1
all x but not diff.

x if x 3 2 1

at x = 1 , - 1 −−≤≤− π
cos 2
(v) y = f(x) = cos-1(4 x3- 3 x) = 23 − 1
1
1

−−≤≤
cos x if x
 −
2
2
2 1
1

<
 x 1 31
 xfor x
cos x if x

1 2 2
dy
(c) + ≤≤

=
non existent for x 2 1
d x=

−>
 +
1 2
for x 1 HIGHLIGHTS :

(d) I in (- 1 , 1) & D in (- ∞ , - 1) ∪ (1 ,∞) 
 
(a) Domain is x ∈ [- 1 , 1] & -11
ii) Consider y = f(x) = cos 122
1
− range is [0 , π]

20
x= x if x

−
−+
x tan
1
≥

−<20

tan
x if x (a) Domain is x ∈ R &
HIGHLIGHTS :
 1 1
range is [0, π) , & D in 21 1 2

(b) Continuous for all x  ⇒ − −
1 1
(b) Continuous everywhere in its domain but not derivable at x = 2 2

,−
1 1  
  

but not diff. at x = 0   ,,

(c) I in −  
∪
>
 2 2
2 

 x 0
 xfor x
+ 
1 2
3 1 1

d x=( )
dy
(c)

= ∈−
non existent for x 0  x 2 2
d x=  xif x ,
−
2 dy 1
(d) 2
1

1 3

−<
,∪,
21 1

()() −∈−−
if x
 +  −
1 2
for x 0 1 2 2

(d) I in (0 , ∞) & D in (- ∞ , 0)
GENERAL NOTE :
Concavity in each case is decided by the sign of 2nd derivative as :

2
dy 'x' is equal to the derivative of 'y' w.r.t. 'x'.
2
dy
2 > 0 ⇒ Concave upwards ;
MONOTONOCITY(Significance of the sign of the first order derivative)
dx DEFINITIONS :
dx
D = DECREASING ; I = INCREASING
2 < 0 ⇒ Concave downwards
13. APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVE (AOD). TANGENT & NORMAL a we have
f a h f a and

1. A function f (x) is called an Increasing Function at a point x = a if in a sufficiently small neighbourhood around x = ( ) ( )
THINGS TO REMEMBER : I The value of the derivative at P (x1, y1) gives the slope of the tangent to the ( ) ( )
+> curve at P. Symbolically
dy⇒ 
= Slope of tangent at P (x1y1) = m (say). +<
fahfa
fahfa()()−< f′ (x1) =1 1
()()
dx
−>
 f a h f a and
increasing; Similarly decreasing if 
decreasing.
xy
defined.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com “Monotonic” in that interval. 4. Tests for increasing and decreasing of a
dxx y function at a point :
II Equation of tangent at (x1, y1) is ; y − y1= III Equation of normal at (x1, y1) is ; y − y1= − 
dy 1 If the derivative f ′(x) is positive at a point x = a, then the function f (x) at this
 dy point is increasing. If it is negative, then the function is decreasing. Even if
⇒1 1(x − x1). ⇒
f'(a) is not defined, f can still be increasing or decreasing.

2. A differentiable function is called increasing in an interval (a, b) if it is (x − x1).

increasing at every point within the interval (but not necessarily at the end
points). A function decreasing in an interval (a, b) is similarly 3. A function which in a given interval is increasing or decreasing is called
 dx x y
11 Note : If f′(a) = 0, then for x = a the function may be still increasing or it may be decreasing as shown. It has to be
NOTE :www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com identified by a seperate rule. e.g. f (x) = x3is increasing at every point. Note that, dy/dx = 3 x².
1.The point P (x1, y1) will satisfy the equation of the curve & the eqation of tangent & normal line. 2.If the tangent
at any point P on the curve is // to the axis of x then dy/dx = 0 at the point P. 3.If the tangent at any point on the
curve is parallel to the axis of y, then dy/dx = ∞ or dx/dy = 0. 4. If the tangent at any point on the curve is equally
inclined to both the axes then dy/dx = ± 1. 5. If the tangent at any point makes equal intercept on the coordinate axes
then dy/dx = – 1. 6. Tangent to a curve at the point P (x1, y1) can be drawn even through dy/dx at P does not exist. 5. Tests for Increasing & Decreasing of a function in an interval :
e.g. x = 0 is a tangent to y = x2/3 at (0, 0).
SUFFICIENCY TEST : If the derivative function f ′(x) in an interval (a , b) is every where positive, then the
7. If a curve passing through the origin be given by a rational integral algebraic equation, the equation of the tangent
(or tangents) at the origin is obtained by equating to zero the terms ofthe lowest degree in the equation. e.g. function f (x) in this interval is Increasing ;www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com If f′(x) is
If the equation of a curve be x 2 – y2 + x3 + 3 x2 y − y3 = 0, the tangents at the origin are given by x 2 – y2 = 0 every where negative, then f(x) is Decreasing.
i.e. x + y = 0 and x − y = 0.
General Note :
IV Angle of intersection between two curves is defined as the angle between the 2 tangents drawn to the 2 curves at
their point of intersection. If the angle between two curves is 90° every where then they are called
ORTHOGONAL curves.

V (a) Length of the tangent (PT) =[ ]

+′
f (x )
1
2
y 1 f (x ) 1 1 ′ (1) If a function is invertible it has to be either increasing or decreasing.
(2) If a function is continuous the intervals in which it rises and falls may be separated by points at which its
y derivative fails to exist.
1
(b) Length of Subtangent (MT) = (3) If f is increasing in [a, b] and is continuous then f (b) is the greatest and f (c) is the least value of f in [a,
f (x )
1
′

(c) Length of Normal (PN) = [ ]2 2. The relation d y = f′ (x) d x can be written as

dxdy= f′ (x) ; thus the quotient of the differentials of 'y' and
y 1+ f′(x ) b]. Similarly if f is decreasing in [a, b] then f (a) is the greatest value and f (b) is the least value.
11
(d) Length of Subnormal (MN) = y1f ' (x1) 6. (a) ROLLE'S THEOREM :
Let f(x) be a function of x subject to the following conditions :
VI DIFFERENTIALS :
The differential of a function is equal to its derivative multiplied by the differential of the independent (i) f(x) is a continuous function of x in the closed interval of a ≤ x ≤ b.
variable. Thus if, y = tan x then dy = sec2 x dx.
(ii) f′ (x) exists for every point in the open interval a < x < b.
In general dy = f′ (x) d x.
(iii) f (a) = f (b). Then there exists at least one point x = c such that a<c < b where f ′ (c) = 0. Note that if
Note that : d (c) = 0 where 'c' is a constant.
f is not continuous in closed [a, b] then it may lead to the adjacent graph where all the 3
d (u + v − w) = du + dv − dw d (u v) = u d v + v d u conditions of Rolles will be valid but the assertion will not be true in (a, b).
Note : (b) LMVT THEOREM :
1. For the independent variable 'x' , increment ∆ x and differential d x are equal but this is not the case with the Let f(x) be a function of x subject to the following conditions :
(i) f(x) is a continuous function of x in the closed interval of a ≤ x ≤ b.
dependent variable 'y' i.e. ∆ y ≠ d y.
(ii) f′ (x) exists for every point in the open interval a < x < b.

(iii) f(a) ≠ f(b).

fbfa tangent line drawn to the curve at x = c. Note the following :

Then there exists at least one point x = c such that a < c < b where f ′ (c) =
()()− fbfa
Rolles theorem is a special case of LMVT since f (a) = f (b) ⇒ f′ (c) =
ba
− ()()−

Geometrically, the slope of the secant line joining the curve at x = a & x = b is equal to the slope of the
 If f(x) is a maximum or minimum at x = c & if f ′
− = 0.
ba
(c) exists then f′ (c) = 0.
Note : Now [f (b) – f (a)] is the change in the function f as x changes from a to b so that [f (b) – f (a)] / (b – a) is the Note :
average rate of change of the function over the interval [a, b]. Also f '(c) is the actual rate of change of the (i) The set of values of x for which f′(x) = 0 are often
function for x = c. Thus, the theorem states that the average rate of change of a function over an interval is
called as stationary points or critical points. The
also the actual rate of change of the function at some point of the interval. In particular, for instance, the
rate of change of function is zero at a stationary
average velocity of a particle over an interval of time is equal to the velocity at some instant belonging to the
interval. www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com point.
This interpretation of the theorem justifies the name "Mean Value" for the theorem. (ii) In case f′(c) does not exist f(c) may be a maximum
(c) APPLICATION OF ROLLES THEOREM FOR ISOLATING THE REAL ROOTS OF AN EQUATION f (x)=0 Suppose or a minimum & in this case left hand and right
a & b are two real numbers such that ; hand derivatives are of opposite signs.
(i) f(x) & its first derivative f′ (x) are continuous for a ≤ x ≤ b. (iii) The greatest (global maxima) and the least (global
(ii) f(a) & f(b) have opposite signs. minima) values of a function f in an interval [a, b]
are f(a) or f(b) or are given by the values of x for
(iii) f′ (x) is different from zero for all values of x between a & b.
which f′ (x) = 0.
Then there is one & only one real root of the equation f(x) = 0 between a & b.
dy
MAXIMA - MINIMA (iv) Critical points are those where
d x = 0, if it exists ,
FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE
or it fails to exist either by virtue of a vertical tangent
HOW MAXIMA & MINIMA ARE CLASSIFIED
or by virtue of a geometrical sharp corner but not
function occur alternately & between two consecutive maximum values there is a minimum value & vice
because of discontinuity of function.
versa.
www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
3. SUFFICIENT CONDITION FOR EXTREME VALUES :
2. A NECESSARY CONDITION FOR
f (c-h) > 0
MAXIMUM & MINIMUM :
′

1. A function f(x) is said to have a maximum at x
f (c+ h) < 0⇒ x = c is a point of local maxima, where f′ (c) = 0.
= a if f(a) is greater than every other value 

′ f (c-h) < 0
assumed by f(x) in the immediate neighbourhood of x = a. Symbolically
f (c+ h) > 0⇒ x = c is a point of local minima, where f′(c) = 0.
fafah
()() Note : If f′ (x) does not change sign i.e. has the same sign in a certain complete neighbourhood of c, then
′
Similarly ′ 
f(x) is either strictly increasing or decreasing throughout this neighbourhood
>+

implying that f(c) is not an extreme value of f.

>−  ⇒ x = a gives maxima for a
fafah()()
sufficiently small positive h. 4. USE OF SECOND ORDER DERIVATIVE IN ASCERTAINING THE MAXIMA OR MINIMA: (a) f(c) is a
Similarly, a function f(x) is said to have a minimum value at x = b if f(b) is least than every other value assumed by minimum value of the function f, if f ′ (c) = 0 & f′′ (c) > 0.
f(x) in the immediate neighbourhood at
fbfbh (b) f(c) is a maximum value of the function f, f′ (c) = 0 & f ′′ (c) < 0.
x = b. Symbolically if
()() Note : if f′′ (c) = 0 then the test fails. Revert back to the first order derivative check for ascertaning the maxima or
minima.
<+

5. SUMMARY−WORKING RULE : FIRST :

fbfbh()()<−  ⇒ x = b gives
minima for a sufficiently small positive h. Note that : value.
(i) the maximum & minimum values of a function are also known as (v) maximum & minimum values of a continuous
local/relative maxima or local/relative minima as these are the greatest & least
values of the function relative to some neighbourhood of the point in question.
(ii) the term 'extremum' or (extremal) or 'turning value' is used both for
maximum or a minimum value.
(iii) a maximum (minimum) value of a function may not be the greatest (least)
value in a finite interval. (iv) a function can have several maximum & When possible , draw a figure to illustrate the problem & label those parts that
minimum values & a minimum value may even be greater than a maximum are important in the problem. Constants & variables should be clearly
distinguished. THIRD :
If y = f (x) is a quantity to be maximum or minimum, find those values of x Test each values of x for which f ′(x) = 0 to determine whether it provides a
SECOND :
Write an equation for the quantity that is to be maximised or minimised. If this for which dy/dx = f′(x) = 0. maximum or minimum or neither. The usual tests are :
quantity is denoted by ‘y’, it must be expressed in terms of a single (a) If d²y/dx² is positive when dy/dx = 0 ⇒ y is minimum.
independent variable x. his may require some algebraic manipulations. FOURTH : If d²y/dx² is negative when dy/dx = 0 ⇒ y is maximum.
If d²y/dx² = 0 when dy/dx = 0, the test fails.
dy zero for x x  changes sign.
(b) If d x is
2

=
 00 dx
 0 ⇒ a maximum occurs at x = x0. 
positive for x x 2 2

< negative for x x > dy

But if dy/dx changes sign from negative to zero to positive as x advances through xo there is a dy
Inflection points can also occur if
dx 2 fails to exist. For example, consider the graph of the function
minimum. If dy/dx does not change sign, neither a maximum nor a minimum. Such points are called
INFLECTION POINTS. FIFTH : /
(,)
defined as,www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com 3 5
If the function y = f (x) is defined for only a limited range ∈−∞
x for x
of values a ≤ x ≤ b then examine x = a & x = b f(x) = [ 2

−∈∞
x for x (,)
for possible extreme values. 21
SIXTH : Note that the graph exhibits two critical points one is a point of local maximum & the
If the derivative fails to exist at some point, examine this point as possible maximum or minimum. Important other a point of inflection.
Note :www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
– Given a fixed point A(x1, y1) and a moving point P(x, f (x)) on the curve y = f(x). Then AP will be
maximum or minimum if it is normal to the curve at P.
– If the sum of two positive numbers x and y is constant than their product is maximum if they are equal, i.e. x
+ y = c , x > 0 , y > 0 , then
14. Integration (Definite & Indefinite)
xy = 1. DEFINITION :
2 2
41[ (x + y) – (x – y) ]
If f & g are functions of x such that g′(x) = f(x) then the function g is called a PRIMITIVE OR
– If the product of two positive numbers is constant then their sum is least if they are equal. i.e. (x + y) 2 = (x –
y)2 + 4xy ANTIDERIVATIVE OR INTEGRAL of f(x) w.r.t. x and is written symbolically as
6. USEFUL FORMULAE OF MENSURATION TO REMEMBER :
Volume of a cuboid = lbh.
∫ d
f(x) dx = g(x) + c ⇔ dx{g(x) + c} = f(x), where c is called the constant of integration. 2.
STANDARD RESULTS :

dx = ( ) +
Surface area of a cuboid = 2 (lb + bh + hl). Volume of a (ax + b)n
prism = area of the base x height. (i) ∫ 1
ax + b = aln (ax + b) + c
n
ax b +1

+ c n ≠ −1 (ii)
Lateral surface of a prism = perimeter of the base x height.
1 ∫dx ( )
an
+
Total surface of a prism = lateral surface + 2 area of the base
px q +

(Note that lateral surfaces of a prism are all rectangles). (iii) + c (iv)
1
∫ 1
eax+b dx = a eax+b ∫ 1 a
apx+q dx = p na
Volume of a pyramid = 3 area of the base x height. (a > 0) + c
1
Curved surface of a pyramid = 2 (perimeter of the base) x slant height. (Note that slant (v) 1 cos (ax + b) + c (vi) (vii)
∫sin (ax + b) dx = − a ∫ ∫ tan(ax + b) dx
1
surfaces of a pyramid are triangles). cos(ax + b) dx = a sin (ax + b) + c
1 ln sec (ax + b) + c(viii) (ix)
1
Volume of a cone = 3π r2h. = a ∫ 1
cot(ax + b) dx = aln sin(ax + b)+ c ∫ sec² (ax + b) dx = 1a tan(ax + b) + c
Curved surface of a cylinder = 2 π rh. (x) 1 (xi)
∫ cosec²(ax + b) dx = − acot(ax + b)+ c ∫ sec (ax + b) . tan (ax + b) dx = a1 sec (ax + b) + c
(xii) cosec (ax + b) . cot (ax + b) dx =
Total surface of a cylinder = 2 π rh + 2 π r2. ∫ a1
4
Volume of a sphere = 3 π r3.
− cosec (ax + b) + c
Surface area of a sphere = 4 π r2.
1
Area of a circular sector = 2 r2 θ , when θ is in radians.  x
  + c
 (xiii) π
∫ secx dx = ln (secx + tanx) + c OR ln tan 4 2

+


7. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SIGN OF 2ND ORDER DERIVATIVE AND POINTS OF INFLECTION : The sign of the 2nd (xiv) x (xv)
order derivative determines the concavity of the
∫ cosec x dx = ln (cosecx − cotx) + c OR ln tan 2 + c OR − ln (cosecx + cotx) ∫ sinh x dx =
curve. Such points such as C & E on the graph where the concavity
of the curve changes are called the points of inflection. From the cosh x + c (xvi) cosh x dx = sinh x + c (xvii) (xviii) cosech²x dx = − coth x +
graph we find that if:
∫ ∫ sech²x dx = tanh x + c ∫
2
c (xix)
dy ∫ sech x . tanh x dx = − sech x + c
(i)

cosech x . coth x dx = − cosech x + c (xxi)

dx 2 dx − x
(xx) = sin 1 a + c
2 > 0 ⇒ concave upwards ∫ ∫22
dy
(ii)
xa
−
2 < 0 ⇒ concave downwards.
dx
xd
xd

1 −1 x + c (xxiii)
+ = a tan a ∫ 22

2
(xxii)
At the point of inflection we find that
dy ∫ 22 xa 1 −1 x
− = a sec a + caxx

dx 2 =0&
−
(xxiv) ∫ dx
dx x
x x a OR sinh 1a + c
(vi) ∫x(x 1)
22
= ln ⇒   xa
+   + +
n ∈ N Take xn −
n
+ common & put 1 + x n = t . (vii) ∫( )n
22

dx dx −
x −1 n ∈ N , take xn common & put 1+x n = tn
(xxv) ∫2 2 x x a OR cosh a + c
+
22
= ln ⇒  
  + −
xa
− dx
2n (n 1) −
xx1

++ c ()
dx − (viii)
ax ∫ take xn common as x and put 1 + x n = t .
/

ln (xxvi) ∫ 22
=
− 2a1 ax 1
n nn 1

xx
− +
ax dx dx
dx
OR ∫
+ a bcos x

−+ c OR ∫
dx
(ix) ∫a bsin x
xa + asin x bsinxcosx ccos x
 ln (xxvii) ∫ 22
=
− 2a1 xa 2
2
22
xa Multiply. .r
−1
x
+
2
a −x +2a sin a + c
N & . .r
++ D by sec² x & put tan x = t .
(xxviii) ∫2 2 dx dx
a −x dx =2x 2 2 dx
(x) ∫a bsin x

−1 x OR ∫
2
x +a +2a sinh a + c + a bcos x

OR ∫
x +a dx =2x 2 2
+ a bsinx ccosx

(xxix) ∫2 2 ++

x
Hint Convert sines & cosines into their respective tangents of half the angles , put tan 2 = t a.cosx b.sinx c
−1 x
x −a −2a cosh a + c ++
2

dx . Express Nr ≡ A(Dr) + B
x −a dx =2x 2 2 dxd(Dr) + c & proceed .

(xxx) ∫2 2 (xi) ∫.cosx m.sinx n

++
e ax

(xxxi) ∫ eax. sin bx dx = 2 2

2 2
x1

+dx OR ∫x Kx 1 x 1

(xii) ∫x Kx 1 −dx where K is any constant . 4 2

+(a sin bx − b cos bx) + c a b 42
++
++
e Hint : Divide Nr & Dr by x² & proceed .
ax

(xxxii) ∫ eax. cos bx dx = 2 2

ab dx
∫ ; put px + q = t2.
dx
+(a cos bx + b sin bx) + c
(xiii)

∫ ( ) 2+ + +
3. TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION : &

(ax + b) px + q
(i) Substitution or change of independent variable . ax bx c px q

∫2,put ax +b =1t ( )dx

;

Integral I =
∫
f(x) dx is changed to
∫ f(φ (t)) f′ (t) dt , by a suitable (ax + b) px + qx + r ∫
, put x =1
t
22

substitution x = φ (t) provided the later integral is easier to integrate .

(xv) x
x ++++
dx ax bx c px qx r
(xiv) α
∫
  . vdx  −
∫
dudx where u & v are differentiable ) α β ; put x = α cos
βdx or (x − ) ( − x ∫ θ + β sin2 θ −
2
(ii) Integration by part : ∫ u.v dx = u ∫ v dx − ∫ ⇒

dx 
)
function . Note : While using integration by parts, choose u & v such that
α α β ; put x = α sec
∫ βdx or (x − ) (x − ∫ θ − β tan2 θ
2

  . vdx  −−
xx
∫
dudx is simple to integrate.
(a) ∫ v dx is simple & (b) ∫ ⇒
dx  dx

This is generally obtained, by keeping the order of u & v as per the order of the lettersin ILATE, where ; I − Inverse
∫α β; put x − α = t2 or x − β = t2.
function, L − Logarithmic function ,
()()
A − Algebraic function, T − Trigonometric function & E − Exponential function (iii) Partial fraction , spiliting a
bigger fraction into smaller fraction by known methods . x−x−

DEFINITE INTEGRAL b

4. INTEGRALS OF THE TYPE :www.MathsBySuhag.com , 1. ∫ a

www.TekoClasses.com f′(x)dx put f(x) = t & proceed . (i) ∫ [ f(x)]nf ′(x) dx OR ∫[ ]n f(x) dx = F(b) − F(a) where ∫ f(x) dx = F(x) + c b

f(x) , VERY IMPORTANT NOTE : If ∫ a

∫ dx f(x) dx = 0 ⇒ then the equation f(x) = 0 has atleast one root lying

(ii) 2+ + ++ ++
dx 2
dx
ax bx c
2
∫ ax bx c
, in (a , b) provided f is a continuous function in (a , b) .
∫ ax bx c

Express ax2 + bx + c in the form of perfect square & then apply the standard results . 2. PROPERTIES OF DEFINITE INTEGRAL :www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
b
b
b
a
px q
∫ 2 dx ,
(iii)
px q
++ + ∫2dx . + + P−1 ∫ a f(t) dt provided f is same P − 2 ∫ f(x) dx = −∫ b

f(x) dx = ∫
a
f(x) dx
+ ax bx c a
ax bx c

Express px + q = A (differential co-efficient of

(iv) ∫ ex[f(x) + f ′(x)] dx = ex. f(x) + c (v) ∫
b
f(x) dx = ∫ a f(x) dx , where c may lie inside or outside the
denominator) + B . P−3 ∫ a b interval [a, b] . This property to be
f(x) dx + ∫ c
[f(x) + xf ′(x)] dx = x f(x) + c c

used when f is piecewise continuous in (a, b) .   n1  r

 n = ∫ 0f(x) dx .
1
 n1
f(x) dx = 0 if f(x) is an odd function i.e. f(x) = − f(−x) .
a
 r1

P−4 ∫ −
∑ f  =
Limit −
 n→∞
a
6. ESTIMATION OF DEFINITE INTEGRAL : b
a

=2∫ 0
f(x) dx if f(x) is an even function i.e. f(x) = f(−x) . (i) For a monotonic decreasing function in (a , b) ; f(b).(b − a) < ∫ a
f(x) dx < f(a).(b − a)

b
f(x) dx = ∫ a
f(a + b − x) dx , In particular ∫ 0
f(x) dx = ∫ 0
b
(ii) For a monotonic increasing function in (a , b) ; f(a).(b − a) < f(x) dx < f(b).(b − a)
P−5 ∫
f(a − x)dx
a
b
a a
∫ a

f(x) dx = ∫ f(x) dx if f(2a − x) = f(x)

2a a
EXPANSIONS :www.MathsBySuhag 1
+ − + + ∞=
(ii)
P−6 ∫ a f(2a − x) dx = 2 ∫ 2
6
7. SOME IMPORTANT .com , www.TekoClasses.com 1
a f(x) dx + ∫
0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
0
0 π
(i) 1 − ..... ln2 + + + + ∞=
2 3 4 5 22221 .....
= 0 if f(2a − x) = − f(x) 2 4 2
1
3 na
12
a
1 1 1 1 1 1
π π
f(x) dx = n ∫ .....
− + − + ∞=
(iv)
+ + + + ∞= 8 .....

f(x) dx ; where‘a’is the period of the function i.e. f(a + x) = (iii) 2222
P−7 ∫ 12
f(x)
2222
1
3
5
7
1
0 0
2 3 4
12
b nT
1 1
1 π

+ + + + ∞=
b
(v)
P−8 24
f(x) dx where f(x) is periodic with period T & n ∈ I .
+
∫ .....
∫ f(x) dx =
2 2222
a nT
4 6 8
+ a

na
a 15. AREA UNDER CURVE
f(x) dx if f(x) is periodic with period 'a' .
P−9 f(x) dx = (n − m) ∫ (AUC) 0
∫ ma
b
f(x) dx ≤ ∫ THINGS TO REMEMBER :
a φ (x) dx
P−10 If f(x) ≤ φ(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b then ∫ a 1. The area bounded by the curve y = f(x) , the x-axis and
b
the ordinates at x = a & x = b is given by,
b b
b b
∫f(x) dx =
f(x)dx .P−12 If f(x) ≥ 0 on the interval [a,
a
y dx.
∫≤∫ ∫ f(x) dx ≥ 0. b
∫ a
a
b] , then a
P−11 f(x)dx A= a

−−−−−
3. WALLI’S FORMULA :www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
2. Ifthe area is below the x−axisthenAis negative. The convention K

π/ 2 ∫
sinnx . cosmx dx =[ ][ ]
(m n)(m n 2)(m n 4)....1or2
++−+−
(n 1)(n 3)(n 5)....1or2 (m 1)(m 3)....1or2 0
 A = y dx
Where K = a
2πif both m and n are even (m, n ∈ N) ; = 1 otherwise 3. Area between the curves y = f (x) & y = g (x) between the
is to consider the magnitude only i.e. 4. DERIVATIVE OF ANTIDERIVATIVE FUNCTION :
ordinates at x = a & x = b is given by,
b
∫in this case.

f(x) dx −
g (x) dx =
If h(x) & g(x) are differentiable functions of x A = b
∫ − g (x) ] dx.
∫[ f(x)
a

d
b
∫ a
b
a
then , ∫h(x)

dx 4. Average value of a function y = f(x) .r.t. x over an interval

a ≤ x ≤ b is defined as : y (av) =
1

f(t) dt = f [h (x)] . h′(x) − f [g (x)] . g′(x)

g(x)

b f (x)
∫

5. DEFINITE INTEGRAL AS LIMIT OF A SUM : b

f(x) dx = n→∞
b−aa a
dA ax n
5. The area functionAaxsatisfies the differential equation dx = f (x) with initial conditionAaa = 0. Note : If F (x) is
any integral of f (x) then , →h ∑=−
= f(x) dx = F (x) + c A a
a + n −1 h ∫ = 0 = F(a) + c ⇒ c = − F (a)
h [f (a) + f (a + h) + f (a + 2h) + ..... + f ( )]∫
Limit Aax a

hence Aax = F(x) − F (a). Finally by taking x = b we get , Aab =

F (b) − F (a).
0
Limit
= h0 f (rh) =
1
∫1
6. CURVE TRACING :
1
f (a + rh) where b − a = nh r
n
The following outline procedure is to be applied in Sketching the
−

Limit f(x) dx ; where nh = 1 OR

h∑
0
If a = 0 & b = 1 then ,n→∞ graph of a function y = f(x) which in turn will be extremely useful to quickly and correctly evaluate the area under the
r
curves.
=
0
(a) Symmetry : The symmetry of the curve is judged as follows :

(i) If all the powers of y in the equation are even then the curve is symmetrical about the axis of x. (ii) If called a DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
all the powers of x are even , the curve is symmetrical about the axis of y.
(iii) If powers of x & y both are even, the curve is symmetrical about the axis of x as well as y. (iv) If the equation 2. A differential equation is said to be ordinary , if the differential coefficients have reference to a single independent
of the curve remains unchanged on interchanging x and y, then the curve is symmetrical about y = x. variable only and it is said to be PARTIAL if there are two or more
(v) If on interchanging the signs of x & y both the equation of the curve is unaltered then there is symmetry in Note that the generalsolution of a differential equation of the n th order contains ‘n’& only ‘n’independent
opposite quadrants. arbitrary constants. The arbitrary constants in the solution of a differential equation are said to be
(b) Find dy/dx & equate it to zero to find the points on the curve where you have horizontal tangents. (c) Find independent, when it is impossible to deduce from the solution an equivalent relation containing fewer
arbitrary constants. Thus the two arbitrary constants A, B in the equation y = Ae x + Bare not independent since
the points where the curve crosses the x−axis & also the y−axis. the equation can be written as y = Ae B. ex = C ex. Similarly the solution y = Asinx + Bcos (x + C) appears to
contain three arbitrary constants, but they are really equivalent to two only.
(d) Examine if possible the intervals when f (x) is increasing or decreasing . Examine what happens to ‘y’ when x →
∞ or − ∞.
8. Elementary Types Of First Order & First Degree Differential Equations . TYPE−1.
VARIABLES SEPARABLE : If the differential equation can be expressed as ; f (x)dx + g(y)dy
7. USEFUL RESULTS :
= 0 then this is said to be variable − separable type.
(i) Whole area of the ellipse, x2/a2 + y2/b2 = 1 is π ab.
A general solution of this is given by
(ii) Area enclosed between the parabolas y2 = 4 ax & x2 = 4 by is 16ab/3. ∫ f(x) dx + ∫ g(y) dy = c ;
− −
(iii) Area included between the parabola y2 = 4 ax & the line y = mx is 8 a2/3 m3. where c is the arbitrary constant . consider the example (dy/dx) = ex y + x2. e y.

16. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION Note : Sometimes transformation to the polar co−ordinates facilitates separation of variables. In this
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE
DEFINITIONS : connection it is convenient to remember the following differentials. If x = r cos θ ; y = r sinθ then,
1. An equation that involves independent and dependent variables and the derivatives of the dependent variables is
 (i) x dx + y dy = r dr (ii) dx2 + dy2 = dr2 + r2 dθ2(iii) x dy−y dx = r2 dθ dx= f (ax + by + c) , b ≠ 0. To solve this, substitute t = ax + by+ c. Then the equation reduces to
2
separable type in the variable t and x which can be solved. Consider the example (x + y) dy
If x = r sec θ & y = r tanθ then x dx − y dy = r dr and x dy − y dx = r2sec θ dθ . TYPE−2
dx= a .
2

dy
:
u www.TekoClasses.com u
u TYPE−3. HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS :www.MathsBySuhag.com ,

∂ ∂ ∂
independent variables. We are concerned with ordinary differential equations only. eg. ∂ ∂ ∂

++y
x z fxy
dx=
= 0 is a partial differential equation. dy
Adifferential equation of the form
3. Finding the unknown function is called SOLVING OR INTEGRATING the
(,) φ( , )where f (x , y) & φ (x , y) are homogeneous functions x y
differential equation . The

solution of the differential equation is also called its PRIMITIVE, because the differential equation of x & y , and of the same degree , is called HOMOGENEOUS . This equation may also be reduced to
can be regarded as a relation derived from it.  to
dy 
the form   & is solved by putting y = vx so that the dependent variable y is changed
4. The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest differential coefficient occuring in it. 5. The degree another variable v, where v is some unknown function, the differential equation is transformed to an ( + )
of a differential equation which can be written as a polynomial in the derivatives is the degree of the derivative of the
highest order occuring in it , after it has been expressed in a form yxy
x dx+
dx= g y
free from radicals & fractions so far as derivatives are concerned, thus the dy = 0.
equation with variables separable. Consider x 2
differential equation :
 −
m p m 1 q

 
 ⇒
 dy
 ⇒ + φ (x , y)
dy ()
f(x , y) + ....... = 0 is order m & degree p. Note that in the differential TYPE−4. EQUATIONS REDUCIBLE TO THE HOMOGENEOUS
FORM :
m
dx axbyc
− dx=
+ +; where a1b2− a2b1≠ 0, i.e. b 1≠ b 2
m a 1 a
2
1
dx
dy 111a xbyc
equation ey − xy′′ + y = 0 order is three but degree doesn't apply. 6.
′′′
If 222

FORMATION OF A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION : ++

If an equation in independent and dependent variables having some arbitrary constant is given , then a and v where h and k are arbitrary constants to be chosen so as to make the given equation homogeneous which
can be solved by the method as given in Type − 3. If
differential equation is obtained as follows :
Differentiate the given equation w.r.t. the independent variable (say x) as many times as the number of
arbitrary constants in it . (i) a1b2− a2b1= 0 , then a substitution u = a1x + b1y transforms the differential equation to an equation with variables
Eliminate the arbitrary constants . separable. and
The eliminant is the required differential equation . Consider forming a differential equation (ii) b1+ a2= 0 , then a simple cross multiplication and substituting d(xy) for x dy + y dx & integrating term by term
for y² = 4a(x + b) where a and b are arbitary constant . yields the result easily.
then the substitution x = u + h, y = v + k transform this equation to a homogeneous type in the new variables u
Note : A differential equation represents a family of curves all satisfying some xy
common properties. This dy
+ −&
25
xy 231
dx= −+ dx=
can be considered as the geometrical +− −+
dy 21
2 1; +− dx=
interpretation of the differential equation.
465xy xy 654
dy xy
Consider −+ xy

7. GENERAL AND PARTICULAR SOLUTIONS : (iii) In an equation of the form : yf(xy) dx + xg (xy)dy = 0 the variables can be separated by the substitution xy = v.
The solution of a differential equation which contains a number of independent arbitrary constants equal to IMPORTANT NOTE :
the order of the differential equation is called the GENERAL SOLUTION (OR COMPLETE INTEGRAL OR COMPLETE
(a) The function f (x , y) is said to be a homogeneous function of degree n if for any real number t ( ≠ 0) , we have f
PRIMITIVE) . A solution obtainable from the general solution by giving particular values to the constants is
called a PARTICULAR SOLUTION. (tx , ty) = tnf(x , y) .
For e.g. f(x , y) = ax2/3 + hx1/3 . y1/3 + by2/3 is a homogeneous function of degree 2/3 (b) A differential equation of the
Φ1 (x, y, C) = 0 gives the family of orthogonal trajectories. Note : Following exact differentials must be
dy remembered :
form
xdy ydx y
(i) xdy + y dx = d(xy) (ii) xd x
dx = f(x , y) is homogeneous if f(x , y) is a homogeneous

function of degree zero i.e. f(tx , ty) = t° f(x , y) = f(x , y). The function f does not depend on x & y separately but only −
 
=   2
on their ratio yxorxy .
0 The general integral of this equation −  
=   2(iv)
xdy ydx

LINEAR DIFERENTIAL EQUATIONS :www.MathsBySuhag.com , +

ydx xdy
(iii)
www.TekoClasses.com
x xyd xy = (ln )
yd y
A differential equation is said to be linear if the dependent variable & its differential coefficients occur
xdy ydx y
+= d (ln(x+y)) (vi) xyd x

in the first degree only and are not multiplied together The nth order linear dx dy xy
(v)
differential equation is of the form ;www.MathsBySuhag.com , −  
www.TekoClasses.com + =   ln 

−
−
n
xdy ydx
n
1 ln  (viii)
dy ydx xdy
n + a1(x) (vii) y  
x yd x +=  
−  
x
xyd y
=  

−
n 22
dy dx Where a0(x) , a1(x) ..... an(x) are called the −
a0 (x) dx 1 + ...... + an (x) . y = φ (x) . tan 1

coefficients of the differential equation. Note that a linear differential equation is always of the first ydx xdy
(ix)
x
  x yd y
+=   xdx ydy
tan (x)
−
22 22
degree but every differental equation of the first degree need not be ln
− + 
x yd x y += + 
22

1

2
dy     
linear. e.g. the differential equation
+   + y = 0 is not linear, though its degree is 1. dy −   =   =−2
2
3
e
xxx 22 (xii) d yye dx e dy

dx dx d
2 (xi) xyxdy ydx 1 +

TYPE − 5. LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST

yyy
ORDER : 
xy y

dy differential coefficient of some function of x & y , is called integrating factor of the differential equation
The most general form of a linear differential equations of first order is
popularly abbreviated as I. F.
dx+ Py = Q , where
(2) It is very important to remember that on multiplying by the integrating factor , the left hand side becomes the
∫ derivative of the product of y and the I. F.
P& Q are functions of x . To solve such an equation multiply both sides by e Pdx
.

  =−2 www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
∫
NOTE : (1) The factor eP d x on multiplying by which the left hand side of the differential equation becomes the
 e 21
(xiii) d xxe dy e dx 2. SECTION FORMULA :
x
If P(x , y) divides the line joining A(x1 , y1) & B(x2 , y2) in the ratio m : n, then ;
17. STRAIGHT LINES & PAIR OF STRAIGHT LINES 1. If m
+
DISTANCE FORMULA : m
n is positive, the division is internal, but if n is negative, the
The distance between the points A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2) is 2 +;y=
2
nmynym 12
21−+− )yy()xx( . x=
nmxnxm 12
+
(3) Some times a given differential equation becomes linear if we take y as the division is external .
+
independent variable and

x as the dependent variable. e.g. the equation ; Note : If P divides AB internally in the ratio m : n & Q divides AB externally in the ratio m : n then P & Q are
dy said to be harmonic conjugate of each other w.r.t. AB.
(x + y + 1) Mathematically ; 1
dx AQ
dx = y + 3 can be written as (y + 3)
2 2
2
+= i.e. AP, AB & AQ are in H.P.
dy = x + y + 1 which is a linear differential
1
equation. AB AP
If A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2), C(x3, y3) are the vertices of triangle ABC, whose sides BC, CA, AB are of lengths a, b, c
TYPE−6. EQUATIONS REDUCIBLE TO LINEAR FORM :
respectively, then the
dy 
  + + + +
The equation
−
dx+ py = Q . y where P & Q functions of x , is reducible to the linear form by dividing it by y & then substituting y
n n n+1
321321
xxx & the
= Z . Its solution can be obtained as in Type−5. Consider the yyy
3. CENTROID AND INCENTRE : coordinates of the centroid are : 
 
,
example (x3 y2 + xy) dx = dy.
3
3
dy
The equation 
coordinates of the incentre are :   ++++
dx + Py = Q . y is called BERNOULI’S EQUATION.
n

++ cxbxax
321321
Note that incentre divides
9. TRAJECTORIES :
Suppose we are given the family of plane curves. Φ (x, y,
a) = 0 depending on a single parameter a.
,
cba
++
cybyay cba

 
 
A curve making at each of its points a fixed angle α with the curve of the family passing through that point is called ′
an isogonal trajectory of that family ; if in particular α = π/2, then it is called an orthogonal trajectory. −
Orthogonal trajectories : We set up the differential equation of the given family of curves. Let it be of the form F (x, y1
,y,x
 =
y, y') = 0 The differential equation of the orthogonal trajectories is of the form F  
the angle bisectors in the ratio (b + c) : a ; (c + a) : b & (a + b) : c.
REMEMBER :(i) Orthocentre , Centroid & circumcentre are always collinear & centroid divides the line joining
orthocentre & cercumcentre in the ratio 2 : 1 .
(ii) In an isosceles triangle G, O, I & C lie on the same line .
4. SLOPE FORMULA : mm
1 12
If θ is the angle at which a straight line is inclined to the positive direction of x −axis, & 0° ≤ θ < 180°, θ ≠
Note : Let m1, m2, m3 are the slopes of three lines L1 = 0 ; L2 = 0 ; L3 = 0 where m1 > m2 > m3 then
90°, then the slope of the line, denoted by m, is defined by m = tan θ. If θ is 90°, m does not exist, but the
the interior angles of the ∆ ABC found by these lines are given by,
line is parallel to the y−axis.If θ = 0, then m = 0 & the line is parallel to the x−axis. If A (x1, y1) & B (x2, y2), mm
tan A =
x1≠ x2, are points on a straight line, then the slope m of the line is given by: m = −
mm
between them, then tan θ = mm
+ ; tan B =
−
12
−

mm
+. +& tan C =
 23
yy 1
   − .
  −−2121
mm
12 31
mm

POINTS − (SLOPE +
xx COLLINEARITY OF THREE FORM) :Points A 11. PARALLEL LINES :
1 12 23
5. CONDITION OF 1 m m 31

(i) When two straight lines are parallel their slopes are equal. Thus any line parallel to ax + by + c = 0 is of
yy  
=    −−2 332 the type ax + by + k = 0 . Where k is a parameter.

 xx (ii) The distance between two parallel lines with equations ax + by + c 1

(x1, y1), B (x2, y2), C(x3, y3) are collinear if   yy
. = 0 & ax + by + c2 =

  −−2121
xx

21
6. EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE IN VARIOUS FORMS :
(i) Slope − intercept form: y = mx + c is the equation of a straight line whose slope is m & which makes − (x − x1) is the equation of a straight line which passes
an intercept c on the y−axis . xx
21

(ii) Slope one point form: y − y1 = m (x − x1) is the equation of a straight line whose slope is m & which through the points (x1, y1) & (x2, y2) .
x y
passes through the point (x1, y1). (v) Intercept form : a b
(iii) Parametric form : The equation of the line in parametric form is given by x − x y y + = 1 is the equation of a straight line which makes intercepts a & b on OX

1 −1 & OY respectively .
(vi) Perpendicular form : xcos α + ysin α = p is the equation of the straight line where the length of the
cosθ sinθ = r (say). Where ‘r’ is the distance of any point (x , y) on the line from the fixed
perpendicular from the origin O on the line is p and this perpendicular makes angle α with positive
=
side of x−axis .
point (x1, y1) on the line. r is positive if the point (x, y) is on the right of (x1, y1) and negative if (x,
(vii) General Form : ax + by + c = 0 is the equation of a straight line in the general form 7. POSITION
y) lies on the left of (x1, y1) .www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
OF THE POINT (x1, y1) RELATIVE TO THE LINE ax + by + c = 0 : If ax1 + by1 + c is of the same
(iv) Two point form : y − y1 =
yy
sign as c, then the point (x1, y1) lie on the origin side of ax + by + c = 0
− cc
 −
mm
12
Note that the coefficients of x & y in both the equations must be same. 12. PERPENDICULAR LINES :
(i) When two lines of slopes m1& m2 are at right angles, the product of their slopes is −1, i.e. m1 m2 = −1.
21
0 is 22
ba Thus any line perpendicular to ax + by + c = 0 is of the form bx − ay + k = 0, where k is any
+ parameter.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com

(iii) The area of the parallelogram =

p
12 p (ii)St. lines ax + by + c = 0 & a′ x + b′ y + c′ = 0 are right angles if & only if aa′ + bb′ = 0.

sinθ,
13. Equations of straight lines through (x1 , y1) making angle α with y = mx + c are: (y − y1) =
where p1 & p2 are distances between two pairs of opposite

sides & θ is the angle between any two adjacent sides . Note that area of the parallelogram bounded tan (θ − α) (x − x1) & (y − y1) = tan (θ + α) (x − x1) , where tan θ = m.
by the lines y = m1x + c1, y = m1x + c2 and y = m2x + d1 , y = m2x + d2 is given by − −
14. CONDITION OF CONCURRENCY :
()()ccdd
1212 Three lines a1x + b1y + c1 = 0, a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 & a3x + b3y + c3 = 0 are concurrent if cba
111

−.

. But if the sign of ax1 + by1 + c is opposite to that of c, the point (x1, y1) cba = 0 . Alternatively : If three constants A, B & C can be found such that
will lie on the non-origin side of ax + by + c = 0. 222 cba 3 3 3
A(a1x + b1y

8. THE RATIO IN WHICH A GIVEN LINE DIVIDES THE LINE SEGMENT JOINING TWO
+ c1) + B(a2x + b2y + c2) + C(a3x + b3y + c3) ≡ 0 , then the three straight lines are concurrent. 15.
POINTS :
Let the given line ax + by + c = 0 divide the line segment joining A(x1, y1) & B(x2, y2) in the ratio AREA OF A TRIANGLE : If (xi, yi), i = 1, 2, 3 are the vertices of a triangle, then its area 1yx

= −+ +
m
m : n, then na x by c
11

++
a x by c
22
. If A & B are on the same side of the given line then
m
n is negative
is equal to
11
, provided the vertices are considered in the counter
clockwise sense. The
1
1yx
22
2
1yx
33
 m INTERSECTION OF TWO GIVEN LINES:
but if A & B are on opposite sides of the given line , then n is positive
9. LENGTH OF PERPENDICULAR FROM A POINT ON A LINE : The equation of a family of lines passing through the point of intersection of a1x + b1y+ c1 = 0 & a2x + b2y +
c2 = 0 is given by (a1x + b1y + c1) + k(a2x + b2y + c2) = 0, where k is an
arbitrary real number.
++
a x by c
Note: If u1 = ax + by + c , u2 = a′x + b′y + d , u3 = ax + by + c′ , u4 = a′x + b′y + d′ then, u1
The length of perpendicular from P(x1, y1) on ax + by + c = 0 is = 0; u2 = 0; u3 = 0; u4 = 0 form a parallelogram.
11
u2 u3− u1 u4 = 0 represents the diagonal BD.
+. Proof : Since it is the first degree equation in x & y it is a straight line. Secondly point B satisfies the equation
22
because the co−ordinates of B satisfy u2 = 0 and u1 = 0.
ab
Similarly for the point D. Hence the result.
On the similar lines u1u2− u3u4 = 0 represents the diagonal AC.
10. ANGLE BETWEEN TWO STRAIGHT LINES IN TERMS OF THEIR SLOPES : If m1 & m2are
the slopes of two intersecting straight lines (m1 m2≠ −1) & θ is the acute angle Note: The diagonal AC is also given by u1 + λu4 = 0 and u2 + ∝u3 = 0, if the two equations are identical for some λ
and ∝.
above formula will give a (−) ve area if the vertices (xi, yi) , i = 1, 2, 3 are placed in the clockwise straight lines passing through the origin & if :
sense. (a) h² > ab ⇒ lines are real & distinct .
16. CONDITION OF COLLINEARITY OF THREE POINTS−(AREA FORM):
(b) h² = ab ⇒ lines are coincident .
1yx (c) h² < ab ⇒ lines are imaginary with real point of intersection i.e. (0, 0)
11
=0. (ii) If y = m1x & y = m2x be the two equations represented by ax² + 2hxy + by2 = 0, then; m1 + m2
The points (xi , yi) , i = 1 , 2 , 3 are collinear if 1yx1yx
2h a
22 = − b & m1 m2 = b.
33
17. THE EQUATION OF A FAMILY OF STRAIGHT LINES PASSING THROUGH THE POINTS OF (iii) If θ is the acute angle between the pair of straight lines represented by, ax 2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0, then;

−
22
[For getting the values of λ & ∝ compare the coefficients of x, y & the tan θ =
constant terms]
18. BISECTORS OF THE ANGLES BETWEEN TWO LINES : (i) Equations of the bisectors of angles between h a b
′+′+′
the lines ax + by + c = 0 & 2 2 = ± +. The condition that these lines are: a b

′+′
a x by c ab
a′x + b′y + c′ = 0 (ab′ ≠ a′b) are :
+
++ (a) At right angles to each other is a + b = 0. i.e. co−efficient of x2 + coefficient
a x b y c a b 22
of y2 =0. (b) Coincident is h2 = ab.
(ii) To discriminate between the acute angle bisector & the obtuse angle bisector If θ be the origin. Rewrite the equations , ax + by + c = 0 & a′x + b′y + c′ = 0 such that
(c) Equally inclined to the axis of x is h = 0. i.e. coeff. of xy = 0. Note: A homogeneous equation of degree n
angle between one of the lines & one of the bisectors, find tan θ .
represents n straight lines passing through origin.
If tan θ < 1, then 2 θ < 90° so that this bisector is the acute angle bisector . 20. GENERAL EQUATION OF SECOND DEGREE REPRESENTING A PAIR OF STRAIGHT LINES: (i) ax2 + 2hxy +
If tan θ > 1, then we get the bisector to be the obtuse angle bisector . by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 represents a pair of straight lines if:
(iii) To discriminate between the bisector of the angle containing the origin & that of the angle not containing the ahg

abc + 2fgh − af2 − bg2 − ch2 = 0, i.e. if

ax+by+c = 0.
′′′
a b 22+ = +
hbf
a x + by + c 22 gfc
the constant terms c , c′ are positive. Then; of the bisector of the ab gives the equation ′ + ′
(ii) The angle θ between the two lines representing by a general equation is
a x + by + c
angle containing the origin & the same as that between the two
′′′
(iv) To discriminate between acute angle bisector & obtuse angle bisector proceed as follows Write ax + by + c
a b 22+ = − = 0 & a′x + b′y + c′ = 0 such that constant terms are positive .
ax+by+c
22 lines represented by its homogeneous part only .
ab gives the equation of
21. The joint equation of a pair of straight lines joining origin to the points of intersection of the line given by lx +
′+′
my + n = 0 ................(i) &
the bisector of the angle not containing the origin.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com the 2nd degree curve : ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 ....... (ii)
 
If aa′ + bb′ < 0 , then the angle between the lines that contains the origin is acute and the equation of the −
2
ymx 
 
+  + 
    −+     −+

l+ll
= 0 ...... (iii)

ax+by+c ax+by+c fy2 ymx c ymx

is ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx
=+′′′
+
bisector of this acute angle is 22 ba a b 22′ + ′ n n n

 +
ax+by+c
′′′ (iii) is obtained by homogenizing (ii) with the help of (i), by writing (i) in the form:     − n
a b 22+ = −

l ymx
= 1.
a x + by + c 22
therefore ab is the equation of other bisector. ′ + ′

If, however , aa′ + bb′ > 0 , then the angle between the lines that contains the origin is obtuse & the equation of the xy
bisector of this obtuse angle is: −= h.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
22. The equation to the straight lines bisecting the angle between the straight lines, 2 2 xy
ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0 is
−
a x + by + c 22 a x + by + c ax+by+c
ax+by+c ab ; therefore
ab
′′′ ′′′
+=+ ′+′ +=−
22 22 22
ab ab ab 23. The product of the perpendiculars, dropped from (x1, y1) to the pair of
lines represented by the equation, L = 0
1

′+′
2
is the equation of other bisector. 2
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
a x hx y by + +

Pp 111
(v) Another way of identifying an acute and obtuse angle 2
L2 = 0 1 .
bisector is as follows :
ax² + 2hxy + by² = 0 is
−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2
2
−q
()
abh
−+
Let L1 = 0 & L2 = 0 are the given lines & u1 = 0 and u2 = 0 are the 4

u2 = 0
bisectors between L1 = 0 & L2 = 0. Take a point P on any one of the lines L1 =
0 or L2 = 0 and drop perpendicular on u1 = 0 & u2 = 0 as shown. If , p < q u = 0
⇒ u1 is the acute angle bisector .
1

24. Any second degree curve through the four point of intersection of f(x y) = 18. CIRCLE
0 & xy = 0 is given by f (x y) + λ xy = 0 where f(xy) = 0 is also a second STANDARD RESULTS :
p > q ⇒ u1 is the obtuse angle bisector . degree curve.
p = q ⇒ the lines L1 & L2 are perpendicular .
Note : Equation of straight lines passing through P(x1, y1) & equally inclined with the lines a1x + b1y + c1 = 0
(a) The circle with centre(h, k) & radius‘r’has the equation ;(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2. (b) The general
& a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 are those which are parallel to the bisectors between these two lines & passing through
the point P . equation of a circle is x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 with centre as :
19. A PAIR OF STRAIGHT LINES THROUGH ORIGIN :
(−g, −f) & radius = g f c 2 2 + − .
(i) A homogeneous equation of degree two of the type ax² + 2hxy + by² = 0 always represents a pair of
1. EQUATION OF A CIRCLE IN VARIOUS FORM : Remember that every second degree equation in x & y in which coefficient of x2 = coefficient of y2 &
there is no xy term always represents a circle.
 If g2 + f2 − c > 0⇒ real circle.
7. A FAMILY OF CIRCLES :
(a) The equation of the family of circles passing through the points of intersection of two circles S 1= 0 & S2= 0 is :
g2 + f2 − c = 0⇒ point circle. S1+ K S2= 0 (K ≠ −1).
g2 + f2 − c < 0⇒ imaginary circle. (b) The equation of the family of circles passing through the point of intersection of a circle S = 0 & a line L = 0 is
given by S + KL = 0.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
Note that the general equation of a circle contains three arbitrary constants, g, f & c which corresponds to the fact
that a unique circle passes through three non collinear points. (c) The equation of a family of circles passing through two given points (x1, y1) & (x2, y2) can be written
(c) The equation of circle with (x1, y1) & (x2, y2) as its through (x1, y1) & (x2, y2). 2. INTERCEPTS MADE BY in the form : (x − x ) (x − x ) + (y − y ) (y − y ) + K 1
1 2 1 2
diameter is : (x − x ) (x − x ) + (y − y ) (y − y ) = 0.
1 2 1 2
A CIRCLE ON THE AXES : = 0 where K is a parameter.
xyxy 1
Note that this will be the circle of least radius passing
11x y 22
1

T
h x
e 2

i +
n
t y
e 2

r
c
+
e
p
2
t
g
s
x

m
+
a
d
2
e
f
y
b
y
+

t
c
h
e
=

c
0
i
r
o
c
n
l
e t
 NOTE : If g2 − c > 0 ⇒ circle cuts the x axis at two distinct points. If g2 = c ⇒ circle touches the
h
e x-axis.
If g2 < c ⇒ circle lies completely above or below the x-axis.
3. POSITION OF A POINT w.r.t. A CIRCLE :
c
The point (x1, y1) is inside, on or outside the circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0.
o
according as x12 + y12 + 2gx1+ 2fy1+ c ⇔ 0 .
- Note : The greatest & the least distance of a point A from a circle
o with centre C & radius r is AC + r & AC − r respectively.
r 4. LINE & A CIRCLE :
Let L = 0 be a line & S = 0 be a circle. If r is the radius of the circle & p is the length of the perpendicular
d
from the centre on the line, then :www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com (i) p > r ⇔ the line
i does not meet the circle i. e. passes out side the circle.
n
(ii) p = r ⇔ the line touches the circle.
a
(iii) p < r ⇔ the line is a secant of the circle.
t
(iv) p = 0 ⇒ the line is a diameter of the circle.
e 5. PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS OF A CIRCLE :
The parametric equations of (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 are :
a x = h + r cos θ ; y = k + r sin θ ; − π < θ ≤ π where (h, k) is the centre,
x
r is the radius & θ is a parameter. Note that equation of a straight line joining two point α & β on the
e
(d) The equation of a family of circles touching a fixed line y − y1= m (x − x1) at the fixed point (x1, y1) is (x − x1)2 +
s
(y − y1)2 + K [y − y1− m (x − x1)] = 0 , where K is a parameter.
In case the line through (x1, y1) is parallel to y - axis the equation of the family of circles touching it at (x1,
a y1) becomes (x − x1)2 + (y − y1)2 + K (x − x1) = 0.
r Also if line is parallel to x - axis the equation of the family of circles touching it at (x 1, y1)
e becomes (x − x1)2 + (y − y1)2 + K (y − y1) = 0.
(e) Equation of circle circumscribing a triangle whose sides are given by L1= 0 ; L2= 0 & L3= 0 is given by ; L1L2+
λ L2L3+ ∝ L3L1= 0 provided co-efficient of xy = 0 & co-efficient of x2 = co-efficient of y2. (f) Equation of circle
2
circumscribing a quadrilateral whose side in order are represented by the lines L 1= 0, L2= 0, L3= 0 & L4= 0 is L1L3+
λ L2L4= 0 provided co-efficient of x2 = co-efficient of y2 and co-efficient of xy = 0.
g 8. LENGTH OF A TANGENT AND POWER OF A POINT :
The length of a tangent from an external point (x 1, y1) to the circle S ≡ x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is given
c
by L = x y gx f y c + + 2 + 2 + = S1. Square of length of the tangent from the point P is also called
2 2
1 1 11 THE

2 POWER OF POINT w.r.t. a circle. Power of a point remains constant w.r.t. a circle. Note that : power of a point
P is positive, negative or zero according as the point ‘P’ is outside, inside or on the circle respectively.
9. DIRECTOR CIRCLE :
− The locus of the point of intersection of two perpendicular tangents is called the DIRECTOR CIRCLE of the
given circle. The director circle of a circle is the concentric circle having radius equal to 2 times the original
circle.
&2fc 10. EQUATION OF THE CHORD WITH A GIVEN MIDDLE POINT :
2
− respectively. The equation of the chord of the circle S ≡ x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 in terms of its mid point M (x1,

α+β α −β
circle x2 + y2 = a2is x cos 2= a cos

α+β y1) is y − y1= −

xg
2+ y sin
1
2.
+ +(x − x1). This on simplication can be put in the form xx1+ yy1+ g (x + x1) +
6. TANGENT & NORMAL : yf
(a) The equation of the tangent to the circle x2 + y2 = a2 at its point (x1, y1) is, x x1+ y y1= a2. 1

f (y + y1) + c = x12 + y12 + 2gx1+ 2fy1+ c which is designated by T = S 1. Note that : the shortest chord of a
Hence equation of a tangent at (a cos α, a sin α) is ; circle passing through a point ‘M’ inside the circle, is one chord whose middle point is M.
x cos α + y sin α = a. The point of intersection of the tangents at the points P(α) and Q(β) is

acos αβ 11. CHORD OF CONTACT :

S ≡ x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0, then the equation of the
α+β + If two tangents PT1 & PT2are drawn from the point P (x1,
a sin 2
y1) to the circle chord of contact T1T2is : xx1+ yy1+ g (x +
, αβ
2 .
cos α−β 2 cos −2 x1) + f (y + y1) + c = 0.
2 2
(b) The equation of the tangent to the circle x + y + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 at its point (x1, y1) is xx1+ yy1+ g (x + x1) + f REMEMBER : (a) Chord of contact exists only if the point ‘P’ is not inside .
(y + y1) + c = 0. 2LR
(c) y = mx + c is always a tangent to the circle x2 + y2 = a2if c2 = a2(1 + m2) and the point of contact is 2 2 22
(b) Length of chord of contact T1T2= RL

+
.
 

−
 amc a 3
,.c
(d) If a line is normal / orthogonal to a circle then it must pass through the centre of the circle. Using this fact RL
normal to the circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 at (x1, y1) is
+
y − y1=
yf
1

RL
(c) Area of the triangle formed by the pair of the tangents & its chord of contact = 2 2 +
Where R is +(x − x1).
the radius of the circle & L is the length of the tangent from (x1, y1) on S = 0.
xg
1

−  tangent.
(d) Angle between the pair of tangents from (x1, y1) = tan 1  (h) Pairs of circles which do not have radical axis are concentric.
  22 15. ORTHOGONALITY OF TWO CIRCLES :
  − LR Two circles S1= 0 & S2= 0 are said to be orthogonal or said to intersect orthogonally if the tangents at their
2RL point of intersection include a right angle. The condition for two circles to be orthogonal
where R = radius ; L = length of
(e) Equation of the circle circumscribing the triangle PT1T2is : Note : is : 2 g1g2+ 2 f1f2= c1+ c2.
(x − x1) (x + g) + (y − y1) (y + f) = 0.
(a) Locus of the centre of a variable circle orthogonal to two fixed circles is the radical axis between the two fixed
circles .
(f) The joint equation of a pair of tangents drawn from the point A (x1, y1) to the circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 (b) If two circles are orthogonal, then the polar of a point 'P' on first circle w.r.t. the second circle passes through the
is : SS1= T2. Where S ≡ x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c ; S1≡ x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1+ c T ≡ xx1+ yy1+ g(x + x1) + point Q which is the other end of the diameter through P . Hence locus of a point which moves such that its
polars w.r.t. the circles S1= 0 , S2= 0 & S3= 0 are concurrent in a circle which is orthogonal to all the three
f(y + y1) + c.
circles.
12. POLE & POLAR :
(i) If through a point P in the plane of the circle , there be drawn any straight line to meet the circle in Q and R, the
locus of the point of intersection of the tangents
19.CONIC SECTION PEREBOLE 1. CONIC SECTIONS:
A conic section, or conic is the locus of a point which moves in a plane so that its distance from a fixed point
at Q & R is called the POLAR OF THE POINT P ; also P is called the POLE OF THE POLAR. (ii) The equation to the polar is in a constant ratio to its perpendicular distance from a fixed straight line.
of a point P (x1, y1) w.r.t. the circle x2 + y2 = a2is given by xx1+ yy1= a2, & if the circle is general then the equation The fixed point is called the FOCUS.
of the polar becomes The fixed straight line is called the DIRECTRIX.
xx1+ yy1+ g (x + x1) + f (y + y1) + c = 0. Note that if the point (x1, y1) be on the circle then the chord of contact, The constant ratio is called the ECCENTRICITY denoted by e.
tangent & polar will be represented by the same equation.

Aa2 2.

  − −
(iii) Pole of a given line Ax + By + C = 0 w.r.t. any circle x2 + y2 = a2is    C
, Ba
C The line passing through the focus & perpendicular to the directrix is called the AXIS. A point of intersection of a
conic with its axis is called a VERTEX.
(iv) If the polar of a point P pass through a point Q, then the polar of Q passes through P. (v) Two lines L1 & L2are (i) Where the two circles neither intersect nor touch each other , there are FOUR common tangents, two of them are
conjugate of each other if Pole of L1lies on L2 & vice versa Similarly two points P & Q are said to be conjugate of transverse & the others are direct common tangents.
each other if the polar of P passes through Q & vice-versa. 13. COMMON TANGENTS TO TWO CIRCLES : (ii) When they intersect there are two common tangents, both of them being direct. (iii) When they touch each
other :www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com (a) EXTERNALLY : there are three common tangents, two The nature of the conic section depends upon the position of the focus S w.r.t. the directrix & also upon the
direct and one is the tangent at the point of contact . value of the eccentricity e. Two different cases arise.
(b) INTERNALLY : only one common tangent possible at their point of contact. CASE (I) : WHEN THE FOCUS LIES ON THE DIRECTRIX.
In this case D ≡ abc + 2fgh − af2 − bg2 − ch2 = 0 & the general equation of a conic represents a pair of straight
(iv) Length of an external common tangent & internal common tangent to the two circles is given by: d − (r − r )
lines if :www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
e > 1 the lines will be real & distinct intersecting at S.
& Lint=2 e = 1 the lines will coincident.
2. GENERAL EQUATION OF A CONIC : FOCAL DIRECTRIX PROPERTY : The e < 1 the lines will be imaginary.
general equation of a conic with focus (p, q) & directrix lx + my + n = 0 is : CASE (II) : WHEN THE FOCUS DOES NOT LIE ON DIRECTRIX.
(l2 + m2) [(x − p)2 + (y − q)2] = e2(lx + my + n)2 ≡ ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 a parabola an ellipse a hyperbola rectangular hyperbola

3. DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN THE CONIC : e = 1 ; D ≠ 0, 0 < e < 1 ; D ≠ 0 ; e > 1 ; D ≠ 0 ; e > 1 ; D ≠ 0

Lext=2 2 h² = ab h² < ab h² > ab h² > ab ; a + b = 0
2 d − (r + r ) . 1 2
12

Where d = distance between the centres of the two circles . r 1 & r2are the radii of the 2 circles. (v) The direct Standard equation of a parabola is y2 = 4ax. For this parabola :
common tangents meet at a point which divides the line joining centre of circles externally in the ratio of their radii. (i) Vertex is (0, 0) (ii) focus is (a, 0) (iii) Axis is y = 0 (iv) Directrix is x + a = 0
Transverse common tangents meet at a point which divides the line joining centre of circles internally in the FOCALDISTANCE :The distance of a point on the parabola from the focusis called the FOCAL DISTANCE
ratio of their radii. OF THE POINT.
14. RADICAL AXIS & RADICAL CENTRE : FOCAL CHORD :
The radical axis of two circles is the locus of points whose powers w.r.t. the two circles are equal. The A chord of the parabola, which passes through the focus is called a FOCAL CHORD.
equation of radical axis of the two circles S1= 0 & S2= 0 is given ; DOUBLE ORDINATE : A chord of the parabola perpendicular to the axis of the symmetry is called a
DOUBLE ORDINATE.
S1− S2= 0 i.e. 2 (g1− g2) x + 2 (f1− f2) y + (c1− c2) = 0.
LATUS RECTUM :
NOTE THAT : A double ordinate passing through the focus or a focal chord perpendicular to the axis of parabola is called
(a) If two circles intersect, then the radical axis is the common chord of the two circles. (b) If two circles touch each the LATUS RECTUM. For y2 = 4ax.
other then the radical axis is the common tangent of the two circles at the common point of contact.
(c) Radical axis is always perpendicular to the line joining the centres of the 2circles. (d) Radical axis need not Length of the latus rectum = 4a. ends of the latus rectum are L(a, 2a) & L' (a, − 2a). Note that: (i)
always pass through the mid point of the line joining the centres of the two circles. Perpendicular distance from focus on directrix = half the latus rectum. (ii)Vertex is middle point of
the focus & the point of intersection of directrix & axis. (iii) Two parabolas are laid to be equal if
(e) Radical axis bisects a common tangent between the two circles. they have the same latus rectum.
(f) The common point of intersection of the radical axes of three circles taken two at a time is called the radical
centre of three circles. Four standard forms of the parabola are y2 = 4ax ; y2 = − 4ax ; x2 = 4ay ; x2 = − 4ay
(g) A system of circles , every two which have the same radical axis, is called a coaxal system . 5. POSITION OF A POINT RELATIVE TO A PARABOLA :
4. PARABOLA : DEFINITION :
A parabola is the locus of a point which moves in a plane, such that its distance from a fixed point (focus) is The point (x1y1) lies outside, on or inside the parabola y2 = 4ax according as the expression y12 − 4ax1is
equal to its perpendicular distance from a fixed straight line (directrix). positive, zero or negative.

6. LINE & A PARABOLA : a

condition of tangency is, c =m .
which any line through P cuts the conic.
The line y = mx + c meets the parabola y2 = 4ax in two points real, coincident or imaginary according as a<> c m ⇒ 16. CHORD WITH A GIVEN MIDDLE POINT :
Equation of the chord of the parabola y² = 4ax whose middle point is

(x1, y1) is y − y1 =
42 
 7. Length of the chord intercepted by the parabola on the line y = mx + c is :
 . 2a
)mca)(m1(a (x − x1). This reduced to T = S1 y

−+ 
m 1
2
where T ≡ y y1 − 2a (x + x1) & S1≡ y12 − 4ax1.
Note: length of the focal chord making an angle α with the x− axis is 4aCosec² α. 8. 17. DIAMETER :
The locus of the middle points of a system of parallel chords of a Parabola is called a DIAMETER. Equation to
PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION : the diameter of a parabola is y = 2a/m, where m = slope of parallel chords.
The simplest & the best form of representing the co−ordinates of a point on the parabola is (at2, 2at). The Note:
equations x = at² & y = 2at together represents the parabola y² = 4ax, t being the parameter. The equation of (i) The tangent at the extremity of a diameter of a parabola is parallel to the system of chords it bisects. (ii) The
a chord joining t1 & t2 is 2x − (t1 + t2) y + 2 at1 t2 = 0.
tangent at the ends of any chords of a parabola meet on the diameter which bisects the chord. (iii) A line segment
from a point P on the parabola and parallel to the system of parallel chords is called the
Note: If chord joining t1, t2 & t3, t4 pass a through point (c, 0) on axis, then t1t2 = t3t4 = − c/a. 9. ,
2
TANGENTS TO THE PARABOLA y2 = 4ax : m
 2
(iii) t y = x + a t² at (at , 2at).
 m2a
ordinate to the diameter bisecting the system of parallel chords and the chords are called its double ordinate.
a 18. IMPORTANT HIGHLIGHTS :
) ; (ii) y = mx + a
(i) y y1 = 2 a (x + x1) at the point (x1, y1 m (m ≠ 0) at  Note : Point of intersection of the tangents at the point t1 & t2 is [ at1 t2, a(t1 + t2) ].
10. NORMALS TO THE PARABOLA y2 = 4ax :
 ,
1 (a) If the tangent & normal at any point ‘P’ of the parabola intersect the axis at T & G then ST = SG = SP where ‘S’
(i) y − y1 =2ay − (x − x1) at (x1, y1) ; (ii) y = mx − 2am − am at (am − 2am) (iii) y + tx = 2at +
3 2,
is the focus. In other words the tangent and the normal at a point P on the parabola are the bisectors of the
at3 at (at2, 2at). angle between the focal radius SP & the perpendicular from P on the directrix. From this we conclude that
all rays emanating from S will become parallel to the axis of the parabola after reflection.
Note : Point of intersection of normals at t1 & t2 are, a (t 12 + t 22 + t1t2 + 2) ; − a t1 t2 (t1 + t2). 11. (b) The portion of a tangent to a parabola cut off between the directrix & the curve subtends a right angle at the
focus.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
THREE VERY IMPORTANT RESULTS : (c) The tangents at the extremities of a focal chord intersect at right angles on the directrix, and hence a circle on
 − any focal chord as diameter touches the directrix. Also a circle on any focal radii of a point P (at 2, 2at) as
(a) If t1 & t2 are the ends of a focal chord of the parabola y² = 4ax then t1t2 = −1. Hence the co-ordinates at the  ta2 diameter touches the tangent at the vertex and intercepts a chord of length a 12
a + t on a normal at the

extremities of a focal chord can be taken as (at2, 2at) & 
t 2. point P.
= the tangents at P and Q meet in T, then : TP and TQ subtend equal angles at the focus S. ST2 = SP. SQ & The
(b) If the normals to the parabola y² = 4ax at the point t1, meets the parabola again at the point t2, then t2   triangles SPT and STQ are similar.

  +−1
(f) Tangents and Normals at the extremities of the latus rectum of a parabola
2 y2 = 4ax constitute a square, their points of intersection being (−a, 0) & (3 a, 0).
t.
1
t (g) Semi latus rectum of the parabola y² = 4ax, is the harmonic mean between segments of any focal chord of + i.e.
(c) If the normals to the parabola y² = 4ax at the points t1 & t2 intersect again on the parabola at the point 't3' then t1 t2
= 2 ; t3 = − (t1 + t2) and the line joining t1 & t2 passes through a fixed point (−2a, 0). a1
1
=+ .
(d) Any tangent to a parabola & the perpendicular on it from the focus meet on the tangtent at the vertex. (e) If

General Note :
the parabola is ; 2a =b c
(i) Length of subtangent at any point P(x, y) on the parabola y² = 4ax equals twice the abscissa of the point P.
1 b
bc2 c
Note that the subtangent is bisected at the vertex. ordinates − a, a (t1 + t2 + t3 + t1t2t3).
(ii) Length of subnormal is constant for all points on the parabola & is equal to the semi latus rectum. (iii) If a family
(j) The area of the triangle formed by three points on a
of straight lines can be represented by an equation λ2P + λQ + R = 0 where λ is a parameter and P, Q, R are linear
parabola is twice the area of the triangle formed by
functions of x and y then the family of lines will be tangent to the curve Q2 = 4 PR. the tangents at these points.
12. The equation to the pair of tangents which can be drawn from any point (x1, y1) to the parabola y² = 4ax is given (k) If normal drawn to a parabola passes through a point
P(h, k) then
by : SS1 = T2 where :
k = mh − 2am − am3 i.e. am3 + m(2a − h) + k = 0.
S ≡ y2 − 4ax ; S1 = y12 − 4ax1; T ≡ y y1− 2a(x + x1).
Then gives m1 + m2 + m3 = 0 ; m1m2 + m2m3 +
13. DIRECTOR CIRCLE : 2a h
Locus of the point of intersection of the perpendicular tangents to the parabola y² = 4ax is called the m3m1 =
DIRECTOR CIRCLE. It’s equation is x + a = 0 which is parabola’s own directrix.
14. CHORD OF CONTACT : www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com Equation to the chord of contact − k .
; m1 m 2 m 3 = − a
of tangents drawn from a point P(x1, y1) is yy1 = 2a (x + x1). Remember that the area of the triangle formed by the
tangents from the point (x1, y1) & the chord of contact is (y12 − 4ax1)3/2 ÷ 2a. Also note that the chord of contact exists
a
where m1, m2, & m3 are the slopes of the three
only if the point P is not inside. 15. POLAR & POLE : concurrent normals. Note that the algebraic sum of
(i) Equation of the Polar of the point P(x1, y1) w.r.t. the parabola y² = 4ax is, the: slopes of the three concurrent normals
(h) The circle circumscribing the triangle formed by any three tangents to a parabola passes through the focus. (i) is zero.
The orthocentre of any triangle formed by three tangents to a parabola y2 = 4ax lies on the directrix & has the co-
ordinates of the three conormal points on the

 −
y y1= 2a(x + x1) parabola is zero.
,
 1am2 1n.
(ii) The pole of the line lx + my + n = 0 w.r.t. the parabola y² = 4ax is  (l) A circle circumscribing the triangle formed by three co−normal points passes through the vertex of the parabola

Note: and its equation is, 2(x2 + y2) − 2(h + 2a)x − ky = 0
(i) The polar of the focus of the parabola is the directrix. Suggested problems from S.L.Loney: Exercise-25 (Q.5, 10, 13, 14, 18, 21), Exercise-26 (Important) (Q.4, 6, 7,
(ii) When the point (x1, y1) lies without the parabola the equation to its polar is the same as the equation to the chord 16, 17, 20, 22, 26, 27, 28, 34, 38), Exercise-27 (Q.4, 7), Exercise-28 (Q.2, 7, 11, 14, 17, 23), Exercise-29
(Q.7, 8, 10, 19, 21, 24, 26, 27), Exercise-30 (2, 3, 13, 18, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 30) Note: Refer to the figure on
of contact of tangents drawn from (x 1, y1) when (x1, y1) is on the parabola the polar is the same as the Pg.175 if necessary.
tangent at the point.
(iii) If the polar of a point P passes through the point Q, then the polar of Q goes through P. (iv) Two straight lines
are said to be conjugated to each other w.r.t. a parabola when the pole of one lies on the other. ELLIPSE
(v) Polar of a given point P w.r.t. any Conic is the locus of the harmonic conjugate of P w.r.t. the two points is
Hence “ If from each point of a
Centroid of the ∆ formed by three co-normal points lies on the x-axis.

==
(PN) Semi minor axis
b
 on the ellipse (0 ≤ θ < 2 π). Note thatSemi major axis
(QN) a
x y circle perpendiculars are drawn upon a fixed diameter then the locus of the points dividing these 2
2

Standard equation of an ellipse referred to its principal axes along the co-ordinate axes is
1
2 . perpendiculars in a given ratio is an ellipse of which the given circle is the
+=
auxiliary circle”.
a b 2

Where a > b & b² = a²(1 − e²) ⇒ a2 − b2 = a2 e2. Where e = eccentricity (0 < e < 1). FOCI : S ≡ (a e,0) & S′ ≡ (− a e,0).
2
x
4. PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION : y
2

The equations x = a cos θ & y = b sin θ together represent the ellipse 1

+=.
EQUATIONS OF DIRECTRICES :
2
a b 2

VERTICES :
x= &x=
ea ea Where θ is a parameter. Note that if P(θ) ≡ (a cos θ, b sin θ) is on the ellipse then ; Q(θ) ≡ (a cos θ, a sin θ) is on
. the auxiliary circle.
− 5. LINE AND AN ELLIPSE :
2
2
x
y
A′ ≡ (− a, 0) & A ≡ (a, 0) .
The line y = mx + c meets the ellipse 1
+ = in two points real, coincident or imaginary according
MAJOR AXIS :
2
2
a
b
The line segment A′ A in which the foci S′ & S lie is of length 2a & is called the major axis (a > b) of the
2
2
x
y
ellipse. Point of intersection of major axis with directrix is called the foot of the directrix (z). as c2is < = or > a2m2 + b2. Hence y = mx + c is tangent to the ellipse 1
+ = if c2 = a2m2 + b2. 2
2
a
b
MINOR AXIS :www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
The y−axis intersects the ellipse in the points B′ ≡ (0, − b) & B ≡ (0, b). The line segment B′B of length 2b The equation to the chord of the ellipse joining two points with eccentric angles α& β is given by x α −β

α+β2 + α +β 2 =
(b < a) is called the ellipse. PRINCIPAL cos yb sin cos
Minor Axis of the AXIS : a 2
The major & minor axis together are called Principal Axis of the ellipse. 6. TANGENTS :
+ = is tangent to the ellipse at (x1,y1). 1
CENTRE : yy 1
xx

(i) 1
The point which bisects every chord of the conic drawn through it is called the centre of the conic. C ≡ (0,
a 2 b 2

x y Note :The figure formed by the tangents at the extremities of latus rectum is rhoubus of area
2 2
0) the origin isthe centre ofthe ellipse
1
2 .
+=
DIAMETER : b (ii) y = mx ± 2 2 2
a 2
a m + b is tangent to the ellipse for all values of m.
A chord of the conic which passes through the centre is called a diameter of the conic. FOCAL CHORD : Achord
θ
which passes through
x cos
Note that there are two tangents to the ellipse having the same m, i.e. there are two tangents parallel to any given =
direction.
ysin
θ (iii) 1
is tangent to the ellipse at the point (a cos θ, b sin θ).

+
a focus is called a focal chord.
a
b
DOUBLE ORDINATE : cos
A chord perpendicular to the major axis is called a 2
2

(iv) The eccentric angles of point of contact of two parallel tangents differ by π. Conversely if the difference between (v) Point of intersection of the tangents at the point α & β is a .
the eccentric angles of two points is p then the tangents at these points are parallel.
double ordinate. ,b
LATUS RECTUM : The focal chord perpendicular to the major axis is called the latus rectum. Length of latus α−β
rectum (LL′) = α−β
cos
α+β
cos
α+β 2
2
sin
7. NORMALS :www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
22
2b 2
()
minor axis
= 2e (distance
2
2

==−
ax
− = a² − b² = a²e². b y

a major axis 2a(1 e ) (i) Equation of the normal at (x1,y1) is

x
y
1
1
from focus to the corresponding directrix)
(iii) Equation of a normal in terms of its slope 'm' is y = mx − 2 2
NOTE :
(i) The sum of the focal distances of any point on the ellipse is equal to the major Axis. Hence distance of focus from
the extremity of a minor axis is equal to semi major axis. i.e. BS = CA. (a b )m
(ii) Equation of the normal at the point (acos θ bsin θ) is ; ax sec θ − by cosec θ = (a² − b²).
, . .

−
x 2
2
y .
& nothing is mentioned, a
+= then the rule is to assume b
If the equation of the ellipse is given as that a > b.
(ii) 1
abm
+
222
2
2
8. DIRECTOR CIRCLE :
2. POSITION OF A POINT w.r.t. AN ELLIPSE : x 21
+ − > < or = 0. at right angles is called the Director Circle. The equation to this locus is x² +
2 y² = a² + b² i.e. a circle
Locus of the point of intersection of the tangents which meet
y 1

The point P(x1,y1) lies outside, inside or on the ellipse according as ; 1 b

3. AUXILIARY CIRCLE / ECCENTRIC ANGLE : A circle described on major axis as diameter is called the
whose centre is the centre of the ellipse & whose radius is the length of the line joining the ends of the
2 auxiliary circle.
2 Let Q be a point on the auxiliary circle
a
major & minor axis. 10. DIAMETER :
9. Chord of contact, pair of tangents, chord with a given middle point, pole & polar are to be interpreted as they are in 2 2 2
x + y = a such that QP produced is perpendicular to the x-axisthen P & Q are called asthe CORRESPONDING
parabola.
The locus of the middle points of a system of parallel chords with slope 'm' of an ellipse is a straight line

b 2
Note : l (L.R.) = 2e (distance from focus to the corresponding directrix)
− x. TRANSVERSE AXIS : The line segment A′A of length 2a in which the foci S′ & S both lie is called the
passing through the centre of the ellipse, called its diameter and has the equation y =
am2
x y T.A. OF THE HYPERBOLA.
2 2
11. IMPORTANT HIGHLIGHTS : Refering to an ellipse 1
=+ . between the two points B′ ≡ (0, − b) & B ≡ (0,
a b CONJUGATE AXIS : The line segment B′B
2 2
b) is called as the
H − 1 If P be any point on the ellipse with S & S′ as its foci then (SP) + (S
the ordinate of P and that the locus of their point of intersection The T.A. & the C.A. of the hyperbola are together called the Principal
axes of the hyperbola. 2. FOCAL PROPERTY :
The difference of the focal distances of any point on the hyperbola is constant
′P) = 2a.
and equal to transverse axis i.e. − ′ = a2SPPS . The distance SS' = focal length.
H − 2 The product of the length’s of the perpendicular segments from the foci
3. CONJUGATE HYPERBOLA :
2
on any tangent to the ellipse is b and the feet of these perpendiculars Y,Y′ lie Two hyperbolas such that transverse & conjugate axes of one hyperbola are
C.A. OF THE HYPERBOLA. respectively the conjugate &
on its auxiliary circle.The tangents at these feet to the auxiliary circle meet on
is a similiar ellipse as that of the original one. Also the
2
2
x
y
lines joining centre to the feet of the perpendicular Y and the transverse axes of the other are called CONJUGATE HYPERBOLAS of each other. eg. 1
focus to the point of contact of tangent are parallel. x 2
2
H − 3 If the normal at any point P on the ellipse with centre C 2 y
=+− are conjugate hyperbolas of each.
2
a
=− &
b

1
,
meet the major & minor axes in G & g respectively & if
2
2
a
b
CF be perpendicular upon this normal, then
H − 8 If the tangent at the point P of a standard ellipse meets the axis in T and t and CY is the perpendicular on it
2 2 2
(i) PF. PG = b (ii) PF. Pg = a (iii) PG. Pg = SP. S′ P (iv) CG. CT = CS (v) locus of the mid point of Gg is another from the centre then,
ellipse having the same eccentricity as that of the original ellipse. [where S and S ′ are the focii of the ellipse and T (i) T t. PY = a2 − b2 and (ii) least value of Tt is a + b.

is the point where tangent at P meet the major axis] H − 4 The tangent & normal at a point P on the ellipse bisect the
external & internal angles between the focal distances of P. This refers to the well known reflection property of the
HYPERBOLA
ellipse which states that rays from one focus are reflected through other focus & vice−versa. Hence we can deduce − −
Note :(a)If e1& e2 are the eccentrcities of the hyperbola & its conjugate then e1 2 + e2 2 = 1. (b)The
that the straight lines joining each focus to the foot of the perpendicular from the other focus upon the tangent at
foci of a hyperbola and its conjugate are concyclic and form the vertices of a square. (c) Two
any point P meet on the normal PG and bisects it where G is the point where normal at P meets the major axis. H − hyperbolas are said to be similiar if they have the same eccentricity.
5 The portion of the tangent to an ellipse between the point of contact & the directrix subtends a right angle at the 4. RECTANGULAR OR EQUILATERAL HYPERBOLA :
corresponding focus.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com The particular kind of hyperbola in which the lengths of the transverse & conjugate axis are equal is called
H − 6 The circle on any focal distance as diameter touches the auxiliary circle.
an EQUILATERAL HYPERBOLA. Note that the eccentricity of the rectangular hyperbola is 2 and the length of its
latus rectum is equal to its transverse or conjugate axis.
5. AUXILIARY CIRCLE :www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com A
H − 7 Perpendiculars from the centre upon all chords which join the ends of any perpendicular diameters of the circle drawn with centre C & T.A. as a
ellipse are of constant length. diameter is called the AUXILIARY CIRCLE of the
 hyperbola. Equation of the auxiliary circle is x2 "CORRESPONDING POINTS "
+ y2 = a2. on the hyperbola & the auxiliary
Note from the figure that circle. 'θ' is called the eccentric angle of the point 'P' on the hyperbola. (0 ≤ θ <2π).
P & Q are called the
x 2 y 2

Note : The equations x = a sec θ & y = b tan θ together represents the hyperbola 1

=−
2

The HYPERBOLA is a conic whose eccentricity is greater than unity. (e > 1). 1. b
STANDARD EQUATION & DEFINITION(S)
2 where θ is a parameter. The parametric equations : x = a cos h φ,
a
x y 2
2 y = b sin h φ also represents the same hyperbola.
Standard equation of the hyperbola is 1
=− .
2
b
2
2 or a2 e2 = a2 + b2 i.e. e2 = 1 + 2
a General Note : Since the fundamental equation to the hyperbola only differs from that to the ellipse in having – b 2
b instead of b2 it will be found that many propositions for the hyperbola are derived from those for the ellipse by simply
Where b2 = a2 (e2 − 1) changing the sign of b2.
6. POSITION OF A POINT 'P' w.r.t. A HYPERBOLA :
a x 2 y 2

A.C
 The quantity 1
1
2
1
=− is positive, zero or negative according as the point (x1, y1) lies within, upon or
=1+  a b
 2 2

T.A without the curve.

FOCI : 7. LINE AND A HYPERBOLA : The straight line y = mx + c is a secant, a tangent or passes outside
=+ according as: c2 > = < a2 m2 − b2.
x y
2 2
the hyperbola 1
S ≡ (ae, 0) & S′ ≡ (− ae, 0).
a 2 b 2

a a 8. TANGENTS AND NORMALS : TANGENTS :

EQUATIONS OF DIRECTRICES : x = e & x = −e .

=− .
x y xx yy 1
2 2
1
(a) Equation of the tangent to the hyperbola 1
b22 2 =− at the point (x1, y1) is 1

VERTICES : A ≡ (a, 0)& A′ ≡ (− a, 0). l (Latus rectum) = ( ).A.T.A.C

2
2
2
2
a
b
a
b
= = 2a (e2 − 1). a Note: In general two tangents can be drawn from an external point (x1 y1) to the hyperbola and they are y − y1 = m1(x

− x1) & y − y1= m2(x − x2), where m1 & m2are roots of the equation (x12 − a2)m2 − 2 x1y1m + y12 + b2 = 0. If D < 0,
then no tangent can be drawn from (x1y1) to the hyperbola.
11. ASYMPTOTES :Definition : If the length of the perpendicular let fall from a
x y x secθ
2 2 −=.
(b)Equation of the tangent to the hyperbola 1 y tan θ
− = at the point (a sec θ, b tan θ) is 1 2
point on a hyperbola to a straight line tends to zero as the point on the hyperbola moves to infinity along

a b a the hyperbola, then the straight line is called

2 b the Asymptote of the Hyperbola.
To find the asymptote of the hyperbola :
2
2
x
y
Let y = mx + c is the asymptote of the hyperbola 1
−=.
2

θ + θ 12
cos sin a Solving these two we get the quadratic as
θ − θ 12
b
2

Note : Point of intersection of the

tangents at θ1 & θ2is x = a (c) y =

mx2 2 2

cos
2
θ+θ
122
,y=b

2
x
cos

2
y
2
θ+θ
122

(b2− a2m2) x2− 2a2 mcx − a2(b2 +

c2) = 0 ....(1)
In order that y = mx + c be an
asymptote, both roots of equation
(1) must approach infinity, the
conditions for which are :

coeff of x2 = 0 & coeff of x = 0.

= 0 or m = &
⇒ b2 − a2m2 ab ±
 − = . Note that there are
± a m − b can be taken as the tangent to the hyperbola 1
a b x and
2 2 += 0
two parallel tangents having the same slope m. x
−= y
.
y 2
a mc = 0 ⇒ c = 0. ∴ equations of asymptote are 0

a
b
a
b
xα+β

α −β − α+β =
cos y sin cos x y
2 2
combined equation to the asymptotes 0
(d) Equation of a chord joining α & β is
2

−=.
a 2 b 2 2

NORMALS: b
2 PARTICULAR CASE :
a
rectangular hyperbola. x2 − y2 = a2 are,
x y 2 When b = a the asymptotes of the y = ± x which are at right angles.
2 2 2
ax
+=−
by
− = at the point P(x1, y1) on it is 22

(a) The equation of the normal to the hyperbola 1 ab Note : (i) Equilateral hyperbola ⇔ rectangular hyperbola.
2 2 2
2
=a e .
x
y 2
a 2
b x
y
1
1
(ii) If a hyperbola is equilateral then the conjugate hyperbola is also equilateral. (iii) A hyperbola and its
conjugate have the same asymptote.
(b) The equation of the normal at the point P (a secθ, b tanθ) on the hyperbola 1

− = is
2 (iv) The equation ofthe pair of asymptotes differ the hyperbola & the
conjugate hyperbola by the same constant
+
ax a 22a b
=+ b
2 by only.

2 2
θ= a e .
sec (v) The asymptotes pass through the centre of the hyperbola & the bisectors of
θ
tan the angles between the
(c) Equation to the chord of contact, polar, chord with a given middle point, pair of tangents from an external point asymptotes are the axes of the hyperbola.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com (vi) The
is to be interpreted as in ellipse.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com 9. DIRECTOR CIRCLE : asymptotes of a hyperbola are the diagonals of the rectangle formed by the lines drawn through the extremities of
The locus of the intersection of tangents which are at right angles is known as the DIRECTOR CIRCLE of the each axis parallel to the other axis.
hyperbola. The equation to the director circle is : x2 + y2 = a2 − b2. (vii) Asymptotes are the tangent to the hyperbola from the centre.
(viii) A simple method to find the coordinates of the centre of the hyperbola expressed as a general equation of
If b2 < a2this circle isreal; if b2 = a2the radius of the circle is zero & it reducesto a point circle at the origin. In degree 2 should be remembered as:
this case the centre is the only point from which the tangents at right angles can be drawn to the curve. If b 2 Let f(x, y) = 0 represents a hyperbola.
> a2, the radius of the circle is imaginary, so that there is no such circle & so no tangents at right angle can
be drawn to the curve. f ∂ f ∂. Then the point of intersection of f f ∂
10. HIGHLIGHTS ON TANGENT AND NORMAL : Find &
x∂ y∂ ∂
x ∂ = 0 &y ∂ = 0 gives the centre of the hyperbola.
x y 12. HIGHLIGHTS ON ASYMPTOTES:
2 2
H−1 Locus of the feet of the perpendicular drawn from focus of the hyperbola 1

− = upon any tangent is 2

a 2 to the transverse axis, the
b H−1 If from any point on the asymptote a straight line be drawn perpendicular
its auxiliary circle i.e. x2 + y2 = a2 & the product of the feet of these perpendiculars is b2· (semi C ·A)2 product of the segments of this line, intercepted between the point & the curve is always equal to the square
of the semi conjugate axis.
H−2 The portion of the tangent between the point of contact & the directrix subtends a right angle at the
H−2 Perpendicular from the foci on either asymptote meet it in the same points as the corresponding directrix & the
corresponding focus.
common points of intersection lie on the auxiliary circle.
H−3 The tangent & normal at any point of a hyperbola bisect the
2
2
x
y
angle between the focal radii. This spells the reflection
H−3 The tangent at any point P on a hyperbola 1

− = with centre C, meetsthe asymptotesin Q and R and 2

2
property ofthe hyperbola as "An incoming light ray" aimed
a
b
towards one focus is between the asymptote is bisected at the point of contact. This implies that locus of the centre of the circle
reflected from the outer surface of the hyperbola towards the other focus. It follows that if an ellipse and a circumscribing the ∆ CQR in case of a rectangular hyperbola is the hyperbola itself & for a standard hyperbola
hyperbola have the same foci, they cut at right
angles at any of their common point. the locus would be the curve, 4(a2x2 − b2y2) = (a2 + b2)2.
cuts off a ∆ CQR of constant area equal to ab from the asymptotes & the portion of the tangent intercepted

x 2 y 2 2 2 x 2 y 2

x Note that the ellipse 1

H−4 If the angle between the asymptote of a hyperbola 1 − = is 2θ then e = secθ.
y

+=
and the hyperbola
1

−
(a > k > b > 0) Xare confocal and

− =
a b 22a k 22k b a b
2 2 2 2

therefore orthogonal.
H−4 The foci of the hyperbola and the points P and Q in which any tangent meets the tangents at the vertices are
− concyclic with PQ as diameter of the circle.
13.RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA :Rectangular hyperbola referred to its asymptotesas axis of coordinates.(a)Eq. is xy = c2 with parametric representation x = ct, y = c/t, t ∈ R – {0}.

Coefficient of the general term .

1.
(b) Eq.of a chord joining the points (t1) & (t2) is x + t1t2y = c(t1+ t2) with slope m = – 1 2tt (iii) Following expansion should be remembered (x < 1).
x − −
(a) (1 + x) 1 = 1 − x + x2 − x3 + x4 − .... ∞(b) (1 − x) 1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + .... ∞
=+
& at P (t) is
tx+ ty = 2c. y
(c) Equation of the tangent at P (x1, y1) is 2 y
11
−2 −2
(c) (1 + x) = 1 − 2x + 3x2 − 4x3 + .... ∞(d) (1 − x) = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + ..... ∞ (iv) The expansions in ascending powers of x are only valid if x is ‘small’. If x is large i.e. | x | > 1 then we
x
(d) Equation of normal : y – c 2 (e) Chord with a given middle point as (h, k) is kx + hy = 2hk.
t = t (x – ct)
 = 1 + nx + )1n(n x² +
20.BINOMIAL EXPONENTIAL & APPROXIMATIONS :(1 + x)n 1.2− 1.2.3
)2n()1n(n
−− x3 .....
LOGARITHMIC SERIES If x < 1, the terms of the above expansion go on decreasing and if x be very small, a stage may be reached
1. BINOMIAL THEOREM : The formula by which any positive integral power of a binomial expression can be when we may neglect the terms containing higher powers of x in the expansion. Thus, if x be so small that
expanded in the form of a series is known as BINOMIAL THEOREM .
may find it convinient to expand in powers of its squares and higher powers may be neglected then (1 + x)n = 1 + nx, approximately. This is an
x1, which then will be small. 6. approximate value of (1 + x)n.
7. EXPONENTIAL SERIES :www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
Limit 
If x , y ∈ R and n ∈ N, then ; x2 3 ; where x may be any real or complex & e =  nn
x x n→∞ 11
− − −
(x + y)n = nC0 xn + nC1 xn 1 y + nC2 xn 2y2 + ..... + nCr xn ryr + ..... + nCnyn = ∑=nr 0nCr xn – r yr. (i) ex = 1 + .......∞+++
 +
1! 2! 3! 2 3

x3
x 2 x
(ii) ax = 1 + .......an ∞+++
an 1
an 1
This theorem can be proved by Induction .www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com lll where a > 0 1
1! the index .(ii) The sum of the indices of x & y in each term is n (iii) The binomial
2!
3! Note : (a) e = 1 + .......∞+++
OBSERVATIONS :(i)The number of terms in the expansion is (n + 1) i.e. one or more than
coefficients of the terms nC0 , nC1 .... equidistant from the beginning and the end are equal.
1!
2!
3!
2. IMPORTANT TERMS IN THE BINOMIAL EXPANSION ARE : (i) General term (ii) Middle term(iii)Term independent of x & (iv) Numerically greatest
(b) e is an irrational number lying between 2.7 & 2.8. Its value correct upto 10 places of decimal is 2.7182818284.
term 1 1 1 1 1 1
−1 
(c) e + e = 2 

 .......∞++++
−  
1 (d) e − e 1 = 2   .......∞++++

1
(i) The general term or the (r + 1)th term in the expansion of (x + y)n is given by ;
!2
!4
!6
!3
!5
!7
− (e) Logarithms to the base ‘e’ are known as the Napierian system, so named after Napier, their inventor. They are also
Tr+1 = nCr xn r . yr called Natural Logarithm.
8. LOGARITHMIC SERIES :
(ii) The middle term(s) is the expansion of (x + y)n is (are) : (a) If n is even , there is only one middle term which is
given by ; T(n+2)/2 = nCn/2 . xn/2 . yn/2 x432 where −1 < x ≤ 1
x
x
(b) If n is odd , there are two middle terms which are :
T(n+1)/2 & T[(n+1)/2]+1 (i) ln (1+ x) = x − ....... ∞+−+
2 3 4
where −1 ≤ x < 1
(iii) Term independent of x contains no x ; Hence find the value of r for which the exponent of x is zero. 432
x
x x
(iv) To find the Numerically greatest term is the expansion of (1 + x)n , n ∈ N find (ii) ln (1− x) = − x − ....... ∞+−−
T n Cx r 1rn 2 3 4
1r − + + 
53
= 2  
r
(iii) ln 
)x1()x1(  ......∞+++
x
x
+
. Put the absolute value of x & find the value of r Consistent with the
x x
==−
−
− x < 1
Tr n 1r 3 5
xC r 1 r

1−+
inequality T
+ +... ∞ = ln 2 (b) eln x = x
T > 1. REMEMBER : (a) 1 −
41 1
1r
r 2 3
Note that the Numerically greatest term in the expansion of (1 − x) , x > 0 , n ∈ N is the same as the greatest
n (c) ln2 = 0.693 (d) ln10 = 2.303
term in (1 + x)n .
21. VECTOR & 3-D
3.If
()n
1. DEFINITIONS:
A VECTOR may be described as a quantity having both magnitude & direction. A vector is generally
+ BA
= I + f, where I & n are positive integers, n being odd and 0 < f < 1, then
→
(I + f) . f = K where A − B = K > 0 & A − B < 1.
n 2 represented by a directed line segment, say

If n is an even integer, then (I + f) (1 − f) = Kn. AB. A is called the initial point & B is called the terminal
→
4. BINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS : (i) C0 + C1 + C2 + ....... + Cn = 2n point. The magnitude of vector
− →
(ii) C0 + C2 + C4 + ....... = C1 + C3 + C5 + ....... = 2n 1 AB is expressed by 
()!
AB.
(iii) C0² + C1² + C2² + .... + Cn² = 2nCn =
2n
nn
!! (2n)!
5. BINOMIAL THEOREM FOR NEGATIVE OR FRACTIONAL INDICES
(iv) C0.Cr + C1.Cr+1 + C2.Cr+2 + ... + Cn−r.Cn = )!rn()rn( ZERO VECTOR a vector of zero magnitude i.e.which has the same initial & terminal point, is called a ZERO
VECTOR. It is denoted by O.
−+
UNIT VECTOR a vector of unit magnitude in direction of a vector a is called unit vector along a and is
REMEMBER : (i) (2n)! = 2n . n! [1. 3. 5 ...... (2n − 1)]

)1n(n − )2n()1n(n − − denoted by aˆ

symbolically a
a
= . EQUAL VECTORS two vectors are said to be equal if they have the same a
23 ˆ
xn1 Provided | x | < 1.
If n ∈ Q , then (1 + x)n = ∞+ ++ ......x

+
2! x 3!

Note : (i)When the index n is a positive integer the number of terms in the expansion of (1 + x)n is expansion of (1 + x)n is infinite and the symbol nCr cannot be used to denote the
finite i.e. (n + 1) & the coefficient of successive terms are :
magnitude, direction & represent the same physical quantity. COLLINEAR VECTORS two vectors are said to be
n
C0 , nC1 , nC2 , nC3 ..... nCn collinear if their directed line segments are parallel disregards to their direction. Collinear vectors are also
(ii) When the index is other than a positive integer such as negative integer or fraction, the number of terms in the called PARALLEL VECTORS. If they have the same direction they are named as like vectors otherwise
unlike vectors. Simbolically, two non zero vectors a and b are collinear if and 2 2 parallel to the same plane. Note that “TWO VECTORS ARE ALWAYS COPLANAR”.
only if, bKa = , where K ∈ R COPLANAR VECTORS a given number of vectors a.bb.a,aaa.a
POSITION VECTOR let O

are called coplanar if their line segments are all a b c a b a c . ( ) . . + = + (distributive) ba0b.a

⊥⇔= ≠≠ )0b0a(
=== (commutative)
 → & position vectors of
be a fixed origin, then the position vector of a point P is the vector
. If ˆ ˆ
OP a&b j .i === projection of bb.a
ˆ ˆ
i .i === ; 0i
=.
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
j .j .k .k k .j
− = pv of B − pv of A . Note: That vector component of a along b = ab
If two vectors b&a →

AB= b a OA&OB , then their sum a b + is a vector represented by

⋅
→ b
two point A and B, then , b
  2
2. VECTOR ADDITION :  
→→ and perpendicular to b = a –
are represented by bona
ab
1k 
 
OC, where OC is the diagonal of the parallelogram OACB. +=+ ⋅
(commutative) ( ) ( )
bb
.www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
abba
φ=
2
3. MULTIPLICATION OF VECTOR BY SCALARS :
a b c a b c + + = + + (associativity)
ab0≤φ≤π

a0a0a If a is a vector & m is a scalar, then m a is a vector parallel to a whose

+==+ a)a(0)a(a then b.a = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3

ˆ
the angle φ between a & b is given by cos. a b & k bj
ˆ
if k aj
+−==−+ ˆ
aa ++= 321
ˆ ˆ
ai bi
modulus is m times that of a . This multiplication is called SCALAR ˆ
bb ++= 321
MULTIPLICATION. If b&a are vectors & m, n are scalars, then:
,2
2 2 2 2 2

amm)a()a(m anama)nm(
1++= aaaa 2 ==
3 a)mn()am(n)an(m Note : (i) Maximum value of a . b = a  b  (ii) Minimum values of a . b
1++=
==
bbbb 2
3
= a . b = − a   b 

+ = + bmam)ba(m (iii) Any vector a can be written as , a = ( ) ( ) ( )

a
a b& is

+=+ a
. . ++.
4. SECTION FORMULA : aiiajjakk. bisector of the angle between the two vectors
If
a b& are the position vectors of two points A & B then the p.v. of a point
(iv) A vector in the direction of the bisector of the angle between the two
. Note p.v. b
vectors + . Hence
r
m nbman ++
which divides AB in the ratio m : n is given by :
b
=
()
λ
a b& is a b + , where λ ∈ R . Bisector of the exterior
+

of mid point of AB = angle between

2ba +

()
λ
a b& is ab−,λ∈R .
+

5. DIRECTION COSINES :www.MathsBySuhag.com ,

www.TekoClasses.com
9. VECTOR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS : θ=⋅ , where n

, a
the angles which this vector makes with the +ve directions OX,OY & OZ are Let kˆ aj =α a

a b& are two vectors & θ is the angle between them then nsinbaba
ˆ aa ++= 321 (i) If
forms a right handed screw system
ˆ ai is the unit vector perpendicular to both
DIRECTION ANGLES & their cosines are called the DIRECTION COSINES . cos 2 .
called aa a b& such that n&b,a
=β
cos 1

, (ii) Lagranges Identity : for any two vectors

aa & ;( ) ( . ). .

=Γ . Note that, cos² α + cos² β + cos² Γ = 1 cos 3

2
22 2 aaab
abaxbabab
6. VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE : The vector product xa b
Parametric vector equation of a line passing through two point )b(B&)a(A is b then its equation is, btar +=
given by, )ab(tar (i) | c | =

−+= where t is a parameter. If − ⋅ ( ) (ii)

c a⋅ = 0;
a b a b 222
the line passes through the point )a(A & is parallel to the vector abbb..
(iv)
ab0a&b
=−=
c b⋅ =0 and (iii)
(iii) Formulation of vector product in terms of scalar product: is the vector a b c, , form a right handed system
c , such that i.e. bKa = , where K is a scalar.

Note that the equations of the bisectors of the angles between the lines r = a + λ b & r = a + ∝ c is : r b c + & r = a a b b a
)ba(m)bm(ab)am(
( ) cb−.
+p

⋅=⋅=⋅ where m is a scalar .

()
+t
= a

≠ ≠ )0b,0a( (not commutative) ⋅ + = ⋅ + ⋅ (distributive)

⋅ = ⇔ are parallel (collinear) ⋅≠⋅
7. TEST OF COLLINEARITY :
respectively are collinear, if & only if there exist scalars a (b c) (a b) (a c)
ˆ ˆ
Three points A,B,C with position vectors c,b,a i =⋅=⋅=⋅ j
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
i j j k i =⋅=⋅=⋅
, where x + y + z = 0. ˆ 0k
j ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ ˆ i k ,i k
j ,k
x, y, z not all zero simultaneously such PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS : ˆ ˆ
& k bj ˆ j
that ; =++ 0czbyax 8. SCALAR ˆ aa ++= 321 i ˆ
then (v) If kˆ aj k

ba =⋅
ˆ ˆ
ˆ ai then b.a <0 bb ++= 321 bi
aaa 321 bbb 321
, note that if θ is acute then b.a > 0 & if θ is obtuse π≤θ≤θ= )0(cosbab.a

[][]
(vi) Geometrically ba ⋅ = area of the parallelogram whose two adjacent sides are represented by then
a b ca a a

= l mn
ccc
. b&a 123

123 bbb ; where

123
, &m n are non coplanar vectors .

If
(vii) Unit vector perpendicular to the plane of baba ⋅
isb&a nˆ
±= a b c, , are coplanar ⇔ = [ ]
abc0.
⋅

A vector of magnitude ‘r’ & perpendicular to the palne of ( )babar

Scalar product of three vectors, two of which are equal or parallel is 0 i.e. [ ] a b c = 0 ,

± ⋅
isb&a Note : If
⋅ abc<0
for left handed system .
[i j k] = 1 [ ] [ ] Ka b c K a b c
⋅
= [( ) ] [ ] [ ]
If θ is the angle between abcdacdbcd+=+
baba
The volume of the tetrahedron OABC with O as origin & the pv’s of A, B and C being
=θ are the pv’s of 3 points A, B & C then the vector area of triangle ABC
sinthenb&a (viii) Vector area If c&b,a

a b c, , are non − coplanar then [ ] a b c, & respectively

a b c > 0 for right handed system & [ ]
1 []
is given by V a b c = 6
a x b bx c cxa + + . The points A, B & C are collinear if 1

[]2
=
1
is given by 21 2 vertices are a b c d, , & are

a x b bx c cxa + + = 0 The positon vector of the centroid of a tetrahedron if the pv’s of its angular

Area of any quadrilateral whose diagonal vectors are 1 2 10. SHORTEST DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO LINES :
1 []
abcd+++.
d xd
d&d given by 4

If two lines in space intersect at a point, then obviously the shortest distance between them is zero. Lines which Note that this is also the point of concurrency of the lines joining the vertices to the centroids of the opposite
do not intersect & are also not parallel are called SKEW LINES. For Skew lines the direction of the shortest faces and is also called the centre of the tetrahedron. In case the tetrahedron is regular it is equidistant from the
distance would be perpendicular to both the lines. The magnitude of the shortest distance vertices and the four faces of the tetrahedron .
→
vector would be equal to that of the projection of

[] []
AB along the direction of the line of shortest distance, Remember that : =2
abbcca+++
→
[]
i.e. LM ojection of AB on LM =0& *12. VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT :
→→→ abbcca−−− abc.
→
LM is parallel to qxp = Pr = Projection of AB on pxq be any three vectors, then the expression )cb(a

Let c,b,a ⋅⋅ is a vector & is called a vector triple

→ product .www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
AB pxq b a pxq
=
.()().()−
⋅⋅
pxq pxq
www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION OF )cb(a ⋅⋅ which itself is a vector, since it is a cross product of two vectors
=
1. The two lines directed along
p q& will intersect only if shortest distance = 0 i.e. Consider the expression )cb(a
a x b x c( ) is a vector perpendicular to the plane containing

b a pxq − = 0 i.e. (
vector perpendicular to the plane c&b
) ( ).( ) , therefore
a x b x c( ) is a vector lies in the plane of c&b
b a − lies in the plane containing and

[( ) ] b a p q − = 0
a bx c& ( ) . Now .⇒ 2. If two lines are given by
a bx c& ( ) but b x c is a p q&

r a Kb r a Kb 1 1 = + = + & 2 2 i.e. they are parallel then , dbx a a

( ) 21 =−
a x b x c( ) in terms of
perpendicular to a . Hence we can express

b c&
b i.e.
11. SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT / BOX PRODUCT / MIXED PRODUCT : + where x & y are scalars .
a x b x c( ) = xb yc
is defined as : axbxc=(.)(.)
a x b x c( ) = ( . ) ( . )
The scalar triple product of three vectors c&b,a
⋅
. It acbabc− () acbbca−
= sin θ cos φ where θ is the angle between ()()

cbac.bxa axbxcaxbxc≠
, spelled as box product . & φ is the angle between
a b& c&ba

is also defined as ]cba[ 13. LINEAR COMBINATIONS / Linearly Independence and Dependence of Vectors :
Given a finite set of vectors
is called a linear
Scalar triple product geometrically represents the volume of the parallelopiped whose three couterminous
edges are represented by ]cba[V.e.ic&b,a a bx c a cx b i e a b c a c b . ( ) .( ) . . [ ] [ ] = − = −

a b c, , ,...... then the vector +++=

ˆ
........czbyaxr & k cj
combination of a b c, , ,...... for any x, y, z ...... ∈ R. We have the following results :
= (a) FUNDAMENTALTHEOREM IN PLANE : Let b,a be non zero , non collinear vectors . Then any vector r coplanar with
In a scalar triple product the position of dot & cross can be interchanged i.e. b,a can be expressed uniquely as a linear combination of b,a i.e. There exist some unique =+ .
]bac[]acb[]cba[ORc.)bxa()cxb(.a
x,y ∈ R such that rbyax
= ==
ˆ ˆ
; k bj If kˆ aj ci
ˆ aa ++= 321
be non−zero, non−coplanar vectors in space. Then any
ˆ
then . cc ++= 321
ˆ ˆ (b) FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM IN SPACE : Let c,b,a
ˆ ai bb ++= 321 bi
In general , if b b l b m b n = + + 123&

a a l a m a n = + + 123; vector r , can be uniquily expressed as a linear combination of c,b,a

are n non zero vectors, & k1, k2, .....kn are n scalars & if the linear
combination
c c l c m c n = + + 123 x......,x,x
R such that rczbyax (c) If n21
=++ .
i.e. There exist some unique x,y ∈

are
then we say that vectors n21
0k.....0k,0k0xk........xkxk 2211 nn 21 n + + = ⇒ = = = d=2
x......,x,x
2 2

2 1 −+−+− )zz()yy()xx(

+
LINEARLY INDEPENDENT VECTORS . mzmz
are not LINEARLY INDEPENDENT then they are said to be LINEARLY
& if there exists at least one kr ≠ 0 then n21
DEPENDENT vectors x......,x,x +
+ ; z = 1 22112 m y m y
(d) If n21 ;y= mxmx
21
(2) Section Fomula
21

said to be LINEARLY DEPENDENT . x= mm 12

2112 +
0xk........xkxk 2211 nn
mm +
.i.e.if

are x......,x,x 12
+++= 2112 + mm

Note : ( For external division take –ve sign )

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ Direction Cosine and direction ratio's of a line
If a = 3i + 2j + 5k then a is expressed as a LINEAR COMBINATION of vectors k ,j ,i . Also , a , k ,j ,i form a linearly
(3) Direction cosine of a line has the same meaning as d.c's of a vector.
dependent set of vectors. In general , every set of four vectors is a linearly dependent system. (a) Any three numbers a, b, c proportional to the direction cosines are called the direction ratios i.e.
l
m
n
1
ˆ ˆ ˆ
k ,j ,i are LINEARLY INDEPENDENT set of vectors. For
±===

a++
b ˆ ˆ ˆ
c 0k K Ki Kj 321 =++ ⇒ K1 = 0 = K2 = K3.
222 a bc
Two vectors b&a
⇒ linear dependence of
same sign either +ve or –ve should be taken through out.
note that d.r's of a line joining x1 , y1 , z1 and x2 , y2 , z2 are proportional to x2 – x1 , y2 – y1 and z2 – z1
are linearly dependent ⇒ a is parallel to b i.e. = 0bxa
are linearly independent .
. Conversely if ≠0bxa
b&a are linearly dependent, then they are coplanar i.e. [ , , ]
n2 cosθ = l1l2 + m1 m2+n1 n2 hence if lines are perpendicular then l1l2 + m1m2+ n1
then b&a (b) If θ is the angle between the two lines whose d.c's are l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 = 0
If three vectors c,b,a a b c = 0 , conversely, if l
1
n
1
if lines are parallel then m== 1

m
n
l
2
2
2
 a b c ≠ 0 , then the vectors are linearly independent.
[,,]
14. COPLANARITY OF VECTORS : mn
l respectively are coplanar if and only if there exist 111

Four points A, B, C, D with position vectors where, x + y + z + w = 0. l nm =0

d,c,b,a note that if three lines are coplanar then l 222 nm

scalars x, y, z, w not all zero simultaneously such that 0=dw+cz+by+ax 15.

RECIPROCAL SYSTEM OF VECTORS : are two sets of non coplanar vectors such that 1='c.c='b.b='a.a
333
& 'c,'b,'a (4)Projection of join of 2 points on line with d.c's l, m, n are l (x2 – x1) + m(y2 – y1) + n(z2 – z1) B
PLANEwww.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
If c,b,a then the two (i) General equation of degree one in x, y, z i.e. ax + by + cz + d = 0 represents
a plane.
(ii) Equation of a plane passing through (x1 , y1 , z1) is
cxa
a'=
[][][]
Note : ca x b
systems are called Reciprocal System of vectors. bx c ;';'b
a (x – x1) + b (y – y1) + c (z – z1) = 0 where a, b, c are the direction ratios of the normal to the plane.
==
abcabcabc
x
y
z
(iii) Equation of a plane if its intercepts on the co-ordinate axes are x 1 , y1 , z1 is 1
=++ .
z
x
y
16. EQUATION OF A PLANE :www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
represents a plane containing the point with p.v. nwherer 111

(a) The equation 0n.)rr( is the general equation of a plane. (iv) Equation of a plane if the length of the perpendicular from the origin on
normal to the plane . =dn.r
the plane is p and d.c's of the perpendicular as l , m, , n is l x + m y + n z = p
−= (v) Parallel and perpendicular planes – Two planes a1 x + b1 y + c1z + d1 = 0
0 is a vector 0 and a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0

a==
(b) Angle between the 2 planes is the angle between 2 normals drawn to the planes and the angle between a line and a
plane is the compliment of the angle between the line and the normal to the plane. are perpendicular if a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0 and coincident if
b c a
===
17. APPLICATI ON OF VECTORS : parallel if a b c a bb 12 cc 12 dd 12
12 12 12 12

(a) Work done against a constant force F over adisplacement (vi) Angle between a plane and a line is the compliment of the angle between the normal to the plane and the

s is defined as s.FW =  n.b
λ+= bar:Line
= . dn.r:Plane

⋅= is the
(b) The tangential velocity V of a body moving in a circle is given by rwV
pv of P wrt ’O’. The direction of M is along the normal to the
form a
plane OPN such that M&F,r
=θ=θ−
line . If
sin)90cos(then |n|.|b|
⋅= where r is the pv of the where θ is the angle between the line and normal to the plane.
point P.
(c) The moment of F about ’O’ is defined as rwhereFrM (vii) Length of the perpendicular from a point (x1 , y1 , z1) to a plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is +++
 p = 222111cbadczbyax
++
right handed system.

are pv’s of the point of the application of the forces

(d) Moment of the couple = F)rr( 1 2
− ⋅ 21r&rwhere
F& F. cz + d2 = 0 is dd

− (viii) Distance between two parallel planes ax + by + cz + d1 = 0 and ax+by +

3 -D COORDINATE GEOMETRY 21
222
USEFUL RESULTS cba
A General :
++
(1) Distance (d) between two points (x1 , y1 , z1) and (x2 , y2 , z2)
−
(ix) Planes bisecting the angle between two planes a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and a2 + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 is

(e) sin (180°+ θ) = − sin θ; cos (180°+ θ) = − cos θ (f) sin (270°− θ) = − cos θ ;
dzcybxa dzcybxa
+++ +++
1111 2222 cos (270°− θ) = − sin θ
2 2
given by 1 = 2

2 2
1 1 ±

cba ++ (g) sin (270°+ θ) = − cos θ ; cos (270°+ θ) = sin θ

2
2

2
2
cba 1
(i) Equation of a line through A (x1 , y1 , z1) and having direction cosines l ,m , n are x x1 y y1 − =
++
Of these two bisecting planes , one bisects the acute and the other obtuse angle between the given planes. (x) Equation 4. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF SUM OR DIFFERENCE OF TWO ANGLES : (a) sin (A ± B) = sinA cosB ± cosA sinB
of a plane through the intersection of two planes P1and P2is given by P1+λP2=0 C STRAIGHT LINE IN SPACE (b) cos (A ± B) = cosA cosB ∓ sinA sinB
(c) sin²A − sin²B = cos²B − cos²A = sin (A+B) . sin (A− B)

− = − cos (A − B)
zz
(d) cos²A − sin²B = cos²B − sin²A = cos (A+B) .
cot cot
l and the lines through (x1 , y1 ,z1) and (x2 , y2 ,z2) 1 ∓ (f) cot (A ± B) =

xx−
m n tan tan cot cot
(e) tan (A ± B) = ±
∓1
yy− zz− AB AB

= =
1 1 1
tan tan A B
BA±

xx − yy −
5. FACTORISATION OF THE SUM OR DIFFERENCE OF TWO SINES OR COSINES :
zz
−

C−D (b) sinC − sinD = 2 cos

21
21 C−D
21 2
(ii) Intersection of two planes a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 =
0 together represent the unsymmetrical form of the straight line. C+D cos C+D sin
2 2
1
x x y y 11− = sinC + sinD = 2 sin
(a) 2
− − C+D cos C+D sin
zz 2 2 C−D

=
(c) cosC + cosD = 2 cos
l is 2
m
(iii) General equation of the plane containing the line n
C−D (d) cosC − cosD = − 2 sin
2

(b) cos2A = cos2A − sin2A = 2cos2A − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2A ;

A (x – x1) + B(y – y1) + c (z – z1) = 0 where Al + bm + cn = 0 .
LINE OF GREATEST SLOPEwww.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com AB is
the line of intersection of G-plane and H is the horizontal plane. Line 2θ θ 2θ 2θ
of greatest slope on a given plane, drawn through a given point on the plane, cos θ = cos 2− sin² 2 = 2cos 2− 1 = 1 − 2sin 2.
is the line through the point 'P' perpendicular to the line of intersetion of the 1 cos 2A
given plane with any horizontal plane.
−
22. TRIGONOMETRY-1 (COMPOUND 2 cos2A = 1 + cos 2A , 2sin2A = 1 − cos 2A ; tan2
A=
1 cos 2A
ANGLE) 1 . BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES :
(a) sin2θ + cos2θ = 1 ; −1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1 ; −1 ≤ cos θ ≤ 1 ∀ θ ∈ R
6. TRANSFORMATION OF PRODUCTS INTO SUM OR DIFFERENCE OF SINES & COSINES (a) 2 sinA cosB =
sin(A+B) + sin(A−B) (b) 2 cosA sinB = sin(A+B) − sin(A−B) (c) 2 cosA cosB = cos(A+B) +
+
cos(A−B) (d) 2 sinA sinB = cos(A−B) − cos(A+B)
θ θ
2 cos22 = 1 + cos θ , 2 sin22 = 1 − cos θ.
7. MULTIPLE ANGLES AND HALF ANGLES :www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com (a) sin 2A = 2
θ θ
sinA cosA ; sin θ = 2 sin 2cos 2 2tan( 2)

(b) sec2θ − tan2θ = 1 ; sec θ ≥ 1 ∀ θ ∈ R

2tanA
(c) tan 2A =
1 tan A
θ

; tan θ =
− )2(tan1

(c) cosec2θ − cot2θ = 1 ; cosec θ ≥ 1 ∀ θ ∈ R θ− 2

2 2

2tanA

, cos 2A =
+ 1 tan AAtan1
(d) sin 2A =
2. IMPORTANT T′ RATIOS: 1 tan A
−(e) sin 3A = 3 sinA − 4 sin3A
2
2
n
(a) sin n π = 0 ; cos n π = (-1) ; tan n π = 0 where n ∈ I

+
3

(2n +1)π A − 3 cosA (g) tan 3A = AtanAtan3

= (−1)n & cos 2 (f) cos 3A = 4 cos3 1 3tan A −

(2n +1)π −
(b) sin 8. THREE ANGLES :
2
= 0 where n ∈ I 2

(c) sin 15° or sin π −13 = cos 75° or cos −15 & cos 36° or cos π
12 = 2 2 125π; 4 5 = 4+15
3. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF ALLIED ANGLES :
π +13 = sin 75° or sin
cos 15° or cos 12 = 2 2 125π; If θ is any angle, then − θ, 90 ± θ, 180 ± θ, 270 ± θ, 360 ± θ etc. are called ALLIED ANGLES. (a) sin (−

13 − = cot 75° ; tan 75° = 13 + θ) = − sin θ ; cos (− θ) = cos θ

tan 15° = 3 1 + = 2 3 − 3 1 − = 2 3 + = cot 15°
(b) sin (90°- θ) = cos θ ; cos (90° − θ) = sin θ

(d) sin π = − 22 ; cos π = + 22 ; tan π ; tan π π

(c) sin (90°+ θ) = cos θ ; cos (90°+ θ) = − sin θ
8 2 8 2 8 = −12 8 3 = +12 (e) sin10 or sin 18° =
(d) sin (180°− θ) = sin θ ; cos (180°− θ) = − cos θ
 +
tanA tanB tanC tanAtanBtanC
++−

(a) tan (A+B+C) = 1 tanAtanB tanBtanC tanCtanA 22 f(θ) <

β−α++ < )cos(ab2ba
−−−
)cos(ab2ba
NOTE IF : (i) A+B+C = π then tanA + tanB + tanC = tanA tanB tanC
π
(ii) A+B+C = π 
2 then tanA tanB + tanB tanC + tanC tanA = 1   and α + β = σ (constant) then the maximum values of the expression cosα cosβ,
0
(ii) sinA + sinB + (d) If α,β ∈ 2,
(b) If A + B + C = π then : (i) sin2A + sin2B + sin2C = 4 sinA sinB sinC
sinC = 4 cos A cos B cos cosα + cosβ, sinα + sinβ and sinα sinβ occurs when α = β = σ/2.
2 2 2C
9. MAXIMUM & MINIMUM VALUES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS: π

 and α + β = σ(constant) then the minimum values of the expression secα + secβ,(e) If
(a) Min. value of a2tan2θ + b2cot2θ = 2ab where θ ∈ R

(b) Max. and Min. value of acosθ + bsinθ are 22

α,β ∈ 02,
22
a + b and –
tanα + tanβ, cosecα + cosecβ occurs when α = β = σ/2.
a+b (f) If A, B, C are the angles of a triangle then maximum value of sinA + sinB + sinC and sinA sinB sinC occurs when
A = B = C = 600
(c) If f(θ) = acos(α + θ) + bcos(β + θ) where a, b, α and β are known quantities then – 22β−α+ 8. TRIGONOMETRIC INEQUALITIES : There is no general rule to solve a Trigonometric inequations and the
same rules of algebra are valid except the domain and range of trigonometric functions should be kept in mind.

 +

(g) In case a quadratic in sinθ or cosθ is given then the maximumor minimum  2x
values can be interpreted  21

log2sin < – 1 ; 
sin x cos x < 0 ; 5 − 2sin 2x ≥6sin x −1
by making a perfect square. 
Consider the examples : 
10. Sum of sines or cosines of n angles,

α+ −
sin
n 24. TRIGONO- TRIANGLE)
2n 1
β 
sin  3(SOLUTIONS OF
2 n

α + n−1 β β
==.
sin α + sin (α + β) + sin (α + 2β ) + ...... + sin ( ) =β 
β sin sin sinC

sin a b
I. SINE FORMULA : In any triangle ABC , A Bc
2

−
sin sin 222 II. COSINE FORMULA : (i) cos A =
cos α + cos(α + β) + cos(α + 2β ) + ...... + cos 2bc
+−
or a² = b² + c² − 2bc. cos A
2β2
α + n−1 β  
( )=
cos   β
α+
2n 1 bca

222c ab
23. TRIGONO-2 (TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS 222

+ −(iii) cos C =
2ab + −

(iii) c = a cosB + b cos A b c

& INEQUATIONS) (ii) cosB =2ca
III. PROJECTION FORMULA : (i) a = b cos C + c cosB (ii) b = c cos A + a cosC
abc
THINGS TO REMEMBER :
 ππ B−C=
  bc
1. If sin θ = sinα ⇒ θ = n π + (−1)n α where α ∈ −  ⇒

,,n∈I. IV. NAPIER’S ANALOGY − TANGENT RULE : (i) tan2

22 +
−cot2A ab
ca −cot
−cot2
B(iii) tan
2 2C

2. If cos θ = cosα ⇒ θ = 2 n π ± α where α ∈ [0 , π] , n ∈ I . = A−B=a b

C−A c a

+ +
 (ii) tan
ππ 2
 V. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF HALF ANGLES :
 
3. If tan θ = tanα ⇒ θ = n π + α where α ∈ − =
(s−a)(s−b) (s−b)(s−c); sin
2B ca
4. If sin² θ = sin² α ⇒ θ = n π ± α. 5. cos² θ = cos² α ⇒ θ = n π ± α.
; sin =
(s−c)(s−a) 2C ab A
(i) sin2 =bc
,,n∈I.22
6. tan² θ = tan² α ⇒ θ = n π ± α. [ Note : α is called the principal angle ] ; cos =
s(s−a) 2B ca
C =
s(s−b); cos 2 ab
7. TYPES OF TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS : (iii) tan A=
∆where s =2 2 s(s a)
(a) Solutions of equations by factorising . Consider the equation ; (2 sin x − cos (b) Solutions of equations reducible to quadratic equations. Consider the
x) (1 + cos x) = sin² x ; cotx – cosx = 1 – cotx cosx
−
equation 3 cos² x − 10 cos x + 3 = 0 and 2 sin2x + 3 sinx + 1 = 0
(ii) cos =
2A bc (s b)(s c) (c) Solving equations by introducing an Auxilliary argument . Consider the (iv) Area of triangle = s(s−a)(s−b)(s−c) . VI. M − N RULE : In any triangle ,

s(s−c) equation : sin x + cos x = 2 ; 3 cos x + sin x = 2 ; secx – 1 = ( 2 – 1) tanx

a+b+c
& ∆ = area of triangle.
− −=
s(s−a)

(d) Solving equations by Transforming a sum of Trigonometric functions into mcot n cot
(m+ n) cot θ
a product. Consider the example : cos 3 x + sin 2 x − sin 4 x = 0 ; =−
=α−β
n cot B mcotC
sin2x + sin22x + sin23x + sin24x = 2 ; sinx + sin5x = sin2x + sin4x 1 1 1
VII. 2ab sinC = 2bc sin A = 2ca sinB = area of triangle ABC .
(e) Solving equations by transforming a product of trigonometric functions into a sum. Consider
a
b
c
sin 6x
; sin3θ = 4sinθ sin2θ
5 x . cos 3 x = sin 6 x .cos 2 x ; 8 cosx cos2x cos4x = === 2R sin sin sinC
the equation :sin sin x
A B
substituting , sin 2 x . cos 2 x = y.
sin4θwww.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com

(f) Solving equations by a change of variable :
y−
(i) Equations of the form of a . sinx + b . cos x + d = 0 , where a , b & d are real numbers & a , b ≠ 0 can bex + cos4 2 x = sin 2 x . cos 2 x changes to 2 (y + 1)
solved by changing sin x & cos x into their corresponding tangent of half the angle. Consider the equation 3 cos x + 4 abc
sin x = 5. Note that R =
 1
(ii) Many equations can be solved by introducing a new variable . eg. the equation sin 4 2   2= 0 by
 r = (s − a) tan 2= (s − b) tan 2= (s − c)
A B
2(b)
4 ∆; Where R is the radius of circumcircle & ∆ is area of
C
trianglewww.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com tan 2

VIII. Radius of the incircle ‘r’ is given by :

∆ a+b+c
(a) r = swhere s =
22
(g) Solving equations with the use of the Boundness of the functions sin x & aB C
(c) r = A B C
cos x or by & so on (d) r = 4R sin 2sin 2sin 2
sin sin
A
cos
making two perfect squares. Consider the equations :
2

x IX. Radius of the Ex− circles r1, r2 & r3are given by :

 
  + 
 x 
x  + −2cosx
sin x cos sin 4− 2 1 sin . cos x = 0 ; ∆ A B C
s − a; r2= s − c(b) r1= s tan 2; r2= s tan 2; r3= s tan 2
4 ∆ ∆
(a) r1= s − b; r3=
x+ tanx – sinx +
sin2x + 2tan2 34 1211= 0

aB C A B C momentum and mechanical energy. Systems of particles; Centre of mass and

(c)r1 = & so on (d) r1 = 4 R sin 2 . cos 2 . cos 2 ;
cos cos Kinetic and potential energy; Work and power; Conservation of linear its motion; Impulse; Elastic and inelastic collisions.?
22
cos
A Note that :− Incentre I of ∆ ABC is the orthocentre of the excentral ∆ I1I2I3 .
2

Law of gravitation; Gravitational potential and field; Acceleration due to gravity; Motion of − ∆ ABC is the pedal triangle of the ∆ I1I2I3 .− the sides of the excentral triangle are 4 R
planets and A B C π
B A C C A B cos 2 , 4 R cos 2 and 4 R cos 2and its angles are 2 2
r2 = 4 R sin 2 . cos 2 . cos 2 ; r3 = 4 R sin 2 . cos 2 . cos 2
X.LENGTH OF ANGLE BISECTOR & MEDIANS :If ma and βa are the A π
− , 22
lengths of a median and
1
an angle bisector from the angle A then, ma = 22 2 2 2 2 b c a + − B π
A − and 2 2
cos
2
and βa = 2
bc
bc
+
3
+ + = 4(a2 + b2 + c2)
222
Note that m m m a b c
XI. ORTHOCENTRE AND PEDAL TRIANGLE :The triangle KLM which is formed by joining the feet of the altitudes is
called the pedal triangle.−the distances of the orthocentre from the angular points of the ∆ ABC are 2 R

cosA , 2 R cosB and 2 R cos− the distances of P from sides are 2 R cosB cosC, 2 R cosC cosA and 2 R cosA

cosB− the sides of the pedal triangle are a cosA (= R sin 2A),

b cosB (= R sin 2B) and c cosC (= R sin 2C) and its angles areπ − 2A, π − 2B and π − 2C. −
circumradii of the triangles PBC, PCA, PAB and ABC are equal .
XII EXCENTRAL TRIANGLE :The triangle formed by joining the three excentres I1, I2 and I3 of ∆
ABC is called the excentral or excentric triangle.
 uniform magnetic field.
C Magnetic moment of a current loop; Effect of a uniform magnetic field on a current loop; Moving coil
− .
galvanometer, voltmeter, ammeter and their conversions.
Electromagnetic induction: Faraday?s law, Lenz?s law; Self and mutual inductance; RC, LR and LC circuits
− I I1 = 4R sin 2 ; I I2 = 4 R sin 2 ; I I3 = 4 R sin 2 .
A B C
with D.C. and A.C. sources.
XIII. THE DISTANCES BETWEEN THE SPECIAL POINTS :www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com (a) The Optics: Rectilinear propagation of light; Reflection and refraction at plane and spherical surfaces; Total internal
reflection; Deviation and dispersion of light by a prism; Thin lenses; Combinations of mirrors and thin lenses;
distance between circumcentre and orthocentre is = R . 1 8 − cos cos cosA B C (b) The distance between Magnification.?
Wave nature of light: Huygen?s principle, interference limited to Young?s double-slit experiment. Modern
circumcentre and incentre is = R Rr 2− 2 physics: Atomic nucleus; Alpha, beta and gamma radiations; Law of radioactive decay;? Decay constant;
Half-life and mean life; Binding energy and its calculation; Fission and fusion processes; Energy calculation in
(c) The distance between incentre and orthocentre is 2 4 2 2 r R A B C − cos cos cos XIV. Perimeter (P) and area (A) of these processes.
Photoelectric effect; Bohr?s theory of hydrogen-like atoms; Characteristic and continuous X-rays, Moseley?s law;
= 2nr sin π 1 2 de Broglie wavelength of matter waves.
a regular polygon of n sides inscribed in a circle of radius r are given by P n and A = 2 nr

2π
sinn Perimeter and area of a regular polygon of n sides circumscribed about a given circle of radius r is given by P

π tan π
= 2nr tann and A = nr2 n
XV. In many kinds of trignometric calculation, as in the solution of triangles, we often require the logarithms of
trignometrical ratios . To avoid the trouble and inconvenience of printing the proper sign to the logarithms
of the trignometric functions, the logarithms as tabulated are not the true logarithms, but the true logarithms
increased by 10 . The symbol L is used to denote these "tabular logarithms" . Thus :
L sin 15º 25′ = 10 + log10 sin 15º 25′ and L tan 48º 23′ = 10 + log10 tan 48º 23′

IIT JEE ADVANCED Physics Syllabus

General: Units and dimensions, dimensional analysis; least count, significant figures; Methods of measurement
and error analysis for physical quantities pertaining to the following experiments: Experiments based on using
Vernier calipers and screw gauge (micrometer), Determination of g using simple pendulum, Young?s modulus by
Searle?s method, Specific heat of a liquid using calorimeter, focal length of a concave mirror and a convex lens
using u-v method, Speed of sound using resonance column, Verification of Ohm?s law using voltmeter and
ammeter, and specific resistance of the material of a wire using meter bridge and post office box.
Mechanics: Kinematics in one and two dimensions (Cartesian coordinates only), projectiles; Uniform Circular
motion; Relative velocity.
Newton's laws of motion; Inertial and uniformly accelerated frames of reference; Static and dynamic friction;
satellites in circular orbits; Escape velocity.
Rigid body, moment of inertia, parallel and perpendicular axes theorems, moment of inertia of uniform bodies with
simple geometrical shapes; Angular momentum; Torque; Conservation of angular momentum; Dynamics of rigid
bodies with fixed axis of rotation; Rolling without slipping of rings, cylinders and spheres; Equilibrium of rigid
bodies; Collision of point masses with rigid bodies.
Linear and angular simple harmonic motions.
Hooke?s law, Young?s modulus.
Pressure in a fluid; Pascal?s law; Buoyancy; Surface energy and surface tension, capillary rise; Viscosity
(Poiseuille?s equation excluded), Stoke?s law; Terminal velocity, Streamline flow, equation of continuity,
Bernoulli?s theorem and its applications.
Wave motion (plane waves only), longitudinal and transverse waves, superposition of waves; Progressive and
stationary waves; Vibration of strings and air columns;Resonance; Beats; Speed of sound in gases; Doppler effect
(in sound).www.MathsBySuhag.com , www.TekoClasses.com
Thermal physics: Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases; Calorimetry, latent heat; Heat conduction in one
dimension; Elementary concepts of convection and radiation; Newton?s law of cooling; Ideal gas laws; Specific
heats (Cv and Cp for monoatomic and diatomic gases); Isothermal and adiabatic processes, bulk modulus of gases;
Equivalence of heat and work; First law of thermodynamics and its applications (only for ideal gases);? Blackbody
radiation: absorptive and emissive powers; Kirchhoff?s law; Wien?s displacement law, Stefan?s law.
Electricity and magnetism: Coulomb?s law; Electric field and potential; Electrical potential energy of a system
of point charges and of electrical dipoles in a uniform electrostatic field; Electric field lines; Flux of electric
field; Gauss?s law and its application in simple cases, such as, to find field due to infinitely long straight wire,
uniformly charged infinite plane sheet and uniformly charged thin spherical shell. Capacitance; Parallel plate
capacitor with and without dielectrics; Capacitors in series and parallel; Energy stored in a capacitor.
Electric current; Ohm?s law; Series and parallel arrangements of resistances and cells; Kirchhoff?s laws and
simple applications; Heating effect of current.
Biot'Savart's law and Ampere?s law; Magnetic field near a current-carrying straight wire, along the axis of a
circular coil and inside a long straight solenoid; Force on a moving charge and on a current-carrying wire in a