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intro

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Rayhana Karar
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4 views

intro

Uploaded by

Rayhana Karar
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 13

1.

1 Overview of Electrical Energy Systems


A unique feature of electrical energy systems is its natural mode of synchronous
operation. It implies that during steady state the electrical frequency is same all
through the system irrespective of the geographical location. They may occupy
different angular positions, but all machines rotate at the same electrical speed.
This close knitting ‫ نسيج‬-‫تركيب‬ implies an embedded interaction of
generators through the transmission network which is governed by the
differential and algebraic equations of the apparatus and interconnects.
This aspect is referred to as the system behavior. This system behavior has to be
protected from abnormalities which is the task.
Under frequency or over frequency of a generator may result in mechanical
damage to it's turbine requiring tripping of an alternator. Even otherwise, low
frequency operation will reduce the life of a turbine and hence it should be
avoided. it is necessary to isolate and de-energize the equipment.
System Protection
Electrical apparatus used in power system may undergo abnormalities in their
life time due to various reasons. It is necessary to avoid abnormal operating
regions for safety of the equipment.
System protection deals with detection of proximity of system to unstable
operating region and consequent control actions to restore stable operating point
and/or prevent damage to equipment. Loss of system stability can lead to partial
or complete system blackouts. The following are used for system protections
 Under-frequency relays,
 Out of-step protection,
 Islanding systems,
 Rate of change of frequency relays,
 Reverse power flow relays,
 Voltage surge relays
Types of Protection
Protection systems can be classified into apparatus protection and system
protection.
Apparatus Protection
Apparatus protection deals with detection of a fault in the apparatus and
consequent protection action. Apparatus protection can be further classified into
following:
 Transmission Line Protection and feeder protection
 Transformer Protection
 Generator Protection
 Motor Protection
 Busbar Protection
System Protection
System protection deals with detection of proximity of system to unstable
operating region and consequent control actions to restore stable operating point
and/or prevent damage to equipment.
Loss of system stability can lead to partial or complete system blackouts. Under-
frequency relays, outof-step protection, islanding systems, rate of change of
frequency relays, reverse power flow relays, voltage surge relays etc are used for
system protection.
The distributors are protected against faults by kit-kat fuses. The recent practice
is to use moulded-case circuit breakers (MCCBs) instead of fuses. The pole-
mounted transformer is protected by drop-out fuses. 11 kV feeders, 66 kV and
132 kV transmission lines are protected by overcurrent and earth-fault relays.
Current transformers will transform the current at a value suitable for relays.
Relays, upon operation when a fault occurs, will signal the circuit breaker for
clearing the faults in feeders.
Wide Area Measurement (WAM) systems are also being deployed for system
protection. Control actions associated with system protection may be classified
into preventive or emergency control actions.
Detection and removal of fault is the task of the protection system (apparatus
protection). Post-fault, the system may or may not return to an equilibrium
position. Transient stability studies are required to determine the post fault
system stability. In practice, out-of-step relaying, under frequency load shedding,
islanding etc are the measures used to enhance system stability and prevent
blackouts. The distinction between system protection and control (e.g. damping
of power swings) is a finer one. In the today's world of Integrated Control and
Protection Systems (ICPS), this distinction does not make much sense.

Downstream relay: faults currents are visible pass through CT of relay.


Upstream relay, faults currents are not seen, because no component of currents
passes through CT of relay.

3.2 System Protection Relays


3.2.1 Under-frequency Relay and Rate of Change of Frequency Relay
3.2.2 Under-voltage Relay
3.2.3 Reverse Power Relay

Distance Protection:
As the system is loaded, the apparent impedance reduces to some
finite value (ZL+Zline) where
ZL is the load impedance and
Zline is the line impedance.
In presence of a fault at a per-unit distance ‘m', the impedance seen
by the relay drops to a mZline as shown in fig 2.3.

The basic principle of distance relay is that the apparent impedance seen by
the relay, which is defined as the ratio of phase voltage to line current of a
transmission line (Zapp), reduces drastically in the presence of a line fault.
A distance relay compares this ratio with the positive sequence impedance
(Z1) of the transmission line.
If the fraction Zapp/Z1 is less than unity, it indicates a fault.
This ratio also indicates the distance of the fault from the relay. Because,
impedance is a complex number, the distance protection is inherently
directional. The first quadrant is the forward direction i.e. impedance of the
transmission line to be protected lies in this quadrant. However, if only
magnitude information is used, non-directional impedance relay results. Fig
2.4 and 2.5 shows a characteristic of an impedance relay and ‘mho relay'
both belonging to this class. The impedance relay trips if the magnitude of
the impedance is within the circular region. Since, the circle spans all the
quadrants, it leads to non-directional protection scheme. In contrast, the mho
relay which covers primarily the first quadrant is directional in nature.
Reliability
Note that number of desired trips can be greater than or equal to number of
correct trips. A desired trip may not happen for various reasons like, the
fault level being below the relaying sensitivity, stuck circuit breaker,
incorrect setting of relays poor maintenance of circuit breaker.

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