5.

General Vector Spaces

Learning Objectives

After studying this module, students are expected to be able to:

1. Make a generalization from R2 and R3 to general vector spaces.
2. Construct a subspace of a vector space, and determine if a subset is a
subspace,
3. Determine the linear dependency between vectors
4. Find the basis of a vector space, determining the dimension of a vector
space,
5. Find the basis of rowspace, columnspace and nullspace of a matrix
Scope

Rn Vector Space

General Vector Space

Subspace

Linear Dependency

Linear Combination

Spanning Set

Basis and Dimension

Rowspace, Columnspace,
Nullspace
Rank and Nullity
Pre-test modul
Pre-test

Answer the following questions:

V is a set of vectors in R3.

V = (v = (v1 , v 2 , v 3 ) v1 , v 2 , v 3  R )
If a, b and c are vectors in V, k and l real number scalars. Determine if the following
statements are true or false.
(true / false) 1. The result of a + b is a vector of R3.
(true / false) 2. a + b = b + a
(true / false) 3. a + ( b + c ) = ( a + b ) + c
(true / false) 4. a + 0 = a, where 0 = ( 0, 0, 0 )
(true / false) 5. a + (-a) = 0, where -a = ( -a1, -a2, -a3)
(true / false) 6. The result of ku is a vector of R3
(true / false) 7. k ( a + b ) = ka + kb
(true / false) 8. ( k + l ) a = ka + la
(true / false) 9. k ( la ) = ( kl ) a
(true / false) 10. 1a = a
Pretest Answer

V is a set of vectors in R3.

V = (v = (v1 , v 2 , v 3 ) v1 , v 2 , v 3  R )
If a, b and c are vectors in V, k and l real number scalars. Determine if the following
statements are true or false.

(true / false) 1. The result of a + b is a vector of R3.

(true / false) 2. a+b=b+a
(true / false) 3. a+(b+c)=(a+b)+c
(true / false) 4. a + 0 = a, where 0 = ( 0, 0, 0 )
(true / false) 5. a + (-a) = 0, where -a = ( -a1, -a2, -a3)
(true / false) 6. The result of ku is a vector of R3
(true / false) 7. k ( a + b ) = ka + kb
(true / false) 8. ( k + l ) a = ka + la
(true / false) 9. k ( la ) = ( kl ) a
(true / false) 10. 1a = a

Vectors in R3 : i = (1, 0 , 0), j = (0, 1, 0), k = (0, 0, 1)

 Rn Vector Space

General Vector Spaces

Subspace

Linear Dependency
Linear Combination

Spanning Set

Basis and Dimension

Rowspace, Columnspace,
Nullspace
Rank and Nullity

5.1 Introduction to
General Vector Spaces
V vector space over R

Definition 5.1: Vector Space

Given a nonempty set V. Addition and scalar multiplication is defined in V. V is a
vector space over R (the set of real numbers) if and only if it satisfies:
1. V is closed under addition, and
For any vector u, v in V and an arbitrary real number (scalar) k:
2. u + v = v + u
3. u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w
4. There is an object 0 in V, called the zero vector, such that
0 + u = u + 0 = u for every u in V
5. For every u in V, there is its negative –u in V such that
u + (-u) = (-u) + u = 0
6. If k is a scalar and u is an element of V, then ku is in V
7. k(u + v) = ku + kv
8. (k + I)u = ku + Iu
9. k(lu) = (kl)u
10. 1u = u
V vector space over R
• V is a nonempty set
• In V, 2 things are defined, i.e. addition (+) and scalar multiplication (.)
• (V, +, .) satisfies the 10 axioms of a vector space
• Can be denoted as V or (V, +, .)

+
R
Generalization from Euclid space to General
Vector Space
V

a (a1, a2) (a1, a2, a3) (a1, a2, a3, a4) (a1, a2, …, an)
+ addition
….
Scalar
R multiplication
R R2 R3 R4 …. Rn
Satisfies 10 axioms

Previously we learned vectors in a plane (R2) and space (R3). Both sets satisfy the 10
axioms of a vector space. R, R4, Rn, … also satisfy the 10 axioms.
Example 1: R Vector Space

The set of real numbers, addition and scalar multiplication

It is easy to show that it satisfies the 10 axioms.

3 is a vector in R.
Example 2: R2 Vector Space
• R2 is a set of vectors.
R 2 = u : u = (u1 , u2 ) u1 , u2  R
Addition (+) is defined as follows.
u = (u1 ,u2 ) v = (v1 ,v 2 ) u + v = (u1 , u2 ) + (v1 , v 2 ) = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v 2 )
Scalar multiplication (.) is defined as follows.
ku = k (u1 , u2 ) = (ku1 , ku2 )
The zero vector in R2 : 0 = (0,0 )

• In order to prove that R2 is a vector space, we need to prove the 10 axioms.

1. (+) closed
u + v = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v 2 )
u+v produces a vector in R2 Axiom 1 is satisfied
2. (.) closed
ku = (ku1 ,ku2 )
ku produces a vector in R2 Axiom 6 is satisfied
12
Example 2 (cont): R2 Vector Space
3. There is a zero element (identity element of addition): u + 0 = u
u + 0 = (u1 , u2 ) + (0,0 ) = (u1 , u2 ) = u Axiom 4 satisfied

4. There is an identity element of scalar multiplication, i.e. 1u = u

1u = 1(u1 , u2 ) = (u1 , u2 ) = u Axiom 10 satisfied

5. There is –u such that u + (-u) = 0

− u = −1(u1 , u2 ) = (− u1 ,−u2 )
u + (− u) = (u1 , u2 ) + (− u1 ,−u2 ) = (u1 − u1 , u2 − u2 ) = (0,0 ) = 0 Axiom 5 satisfied

6. (+) commutative: u + v = v + u

u + v = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v 2 )
Addition between real numbers is commutative:
v + u = (v1 + u1 , v 2 + u2 )
u1 + v1 = v1 + u1 u2 + v 2 = v 2 + u2
Hence: u+ v = v +u Axiom 2 satisfied

13
Example 2 (cont): R2 Vector Space
7. (+) associative: (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
(u + v ) + w = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v 2 ) + (w1 , w 2 )
= (u1 + v1 + w1 , u2 + v 2 + w 2 )

u + (v + w ) = (u1 , u2 ) + (v1 + w1 , v 2 + w 2 )
Axiom 3 satisfied
= (u1 + v1 + w1 , u2 + v 2 + w 2 )

8. (.) is distributive over (+): k (u+v) = ku + kv

k (u + v ) = k (u1 + v1 , u2 + v 2 )
= (ku1 + kv1 , ku2 + kv2 )

ku + kv = k (u1 , u2 ) + k (v1 , v 2 )
= (ku1 , ku2 ) + (kv1 , kv2 )
k (u + v ) = ku + kv Axiom 7 satisfied
= (ku1 + kv1 , ku2 + kv2 )

14
Example 2 (cont): R2 Vector Space
9. (k + l)u = ku + lu

(k + l )u = (k + l )(u1 , u2 )
= ((k + l )u1 , (k + l )u2 )
= (ku1 + lu1 , ku2 + lu2 )

ku + lu = k (u1 , u2 ) + l (u1 , u2 )
= (ku1 , ku2 ) + (lu1 , lu2 )
= (ku1 + lu1 , ku2 + lu2 ) Axiom 8 satisfied

10. (.) associative: k(lu) = (kl)u

k (lu) = k (lu1 , lu2 ) = (klu1 , klu2 )

(kl )u = kl(u1 , u2 ) = (klu1 , klu2 ) Axiom 9 satisfied

15
 Example 3: Rn Vector Space
• Rn is a set of vectors in Rn.
R n = u : u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ,, un ) u1 , u2 , u3 ,, un  R
Addition (+) is defined as follows.
u = (u1 , u2 ,, un ) v = (v1 , v 2 ,, v n )
u + v = (u1 , u2 ,, un ) + (v1 , v 2 ,, v n ) = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v 2 ,, un + v n )
Scalar multiplication (.) is defined as follows.
ku = k (u1 , u2 ,, un ) = (ku1 , ku2 ,, kun )
Zero element in Rn : 0 = (0,0,,0 )

• In order to prove that Rn is a vector space, we need to show it satisfies the 10 axioms.
1. Closed under (+)
u + v = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v 2 ,, un + v n ) Axiom 1 satisfied
2. Closed under (.)
ku = (ku1 , ku2 ,, kun ) Axiom 6 satisfied

16
Example 3 (cont): Rn Vector Space
3. There is a zero element (identity element of addition): u + 0 = u
u + 0 = (u1 , u2 ,, un ) + (0,0,,0 ) = (u1 , u2 ,, un ) = u Axiom 4 satisfied

4. There is an identity element of scalar multiplication, i.e. 1u = u

1u = 1(u1 , u2 ,, un ) = (u1 , u2 ,, un ) = u Axiom 10 satisfied

5. There is –u such that u + (-u) = 0

− u = −1(u1 , u2 ,, un ) = (− u1 ,−u2 ,,−un )

u + (− u) = (u1 − u1 , u2 − u2 ,, un − un ) = (0,0,,0 ) = 0 Axiom 5 satisfied

6. (+) commutative: u + v = v + u

u + v = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v 2 ,, un + v n )

v + u = (v1 + u1 , v 2 + u2 ,, v n + un )
u+ v = v +u Axiom 2 satisfied

17
Example 3 (cont): Rn Vector Space
7. (+) associative: (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
(u + v ) + w = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v 2 ,, un + v n ) + (w1 , w 2 ,, w n )
= (u1 + v1 + w1 , u2 + v 2 + w 2 ,, un + v n + w n )

u + (v + w ) = (u1 , u2 ,, un ) + (v1 + w1 , v 2 + w 2 ,, v n + w n )

Axiom 3 satisfied
= (u1 + v1 + w1 , u2 + v 2 + w 2 ,, un + v n + w n )

8. (.) distributive over (+): k (u+v) = ku + kv

k (u + v ) = k (u1 + v1 , u2 + v 2 ,, un + v n )
= (ku1 + kv1 , ku2 + kv2 ,, kun + kv n )

ku + kv = k (u1 , u2 ,, un ) + k (v1 , v 2 ,, v n )

= (ku1 , ku2 ,, kun ) + (kv1 , kv2 ,, kv n )
= (ku1 + kv1 , ku2 + kv2 ,, kun + kv n )

k (u + v ) = ku + kv Axiom 7 satisfied

18
Example 3 (cont): Rn Vector Space
9. (k + l)u = ku + lu

(k + l )u = (k + l )(u1 , u2 ,, un )
= ((k + l )u1 , (k + l )u2 ,, (k + l )un )
= (ku1 + lu1 , ku2 + lu2 ,, kun + lun )

ku + lu = k (u1 , u2 ,, un ) + l (u1 , u2 ,, un )

= (ku1 , ku2 ,, kun ) + (lu1 , lu2 ,, lun )
= (ku1 + lu1 , ku2 + lu2 ,, kun + lun ) Axiom 8 satisfied

10. (.) associative: k(lu) = (kl)u

k (lu) = k (lu1 , lu2 ,, lun ) = (klu1 , klu2 ,, klun )

(kl )u = kl(u1 , u2 ,, un ) = (klu1 , klu2 ,, klun ) Axiom 9 satisfied

19
Example 4 : M2x3 Vector Space
• M2x3 is a set of all 2x3 matrices
  a11 a12 a13  
M 2 X 3 = a : a =   aij  R 
  a21 a22 a23  
– Addition (+) is defined as follows:
 u11 u12 u13   v11 v12 v13 
u =   v =  
 u21 u22 u23   v 21 v 22 v 23 

 u11 u12 u13   v11 v12 v13   u11 + v11 u12 + v12 u13 + v13 
u + v =  + = 
 u21 u22 u23   v 21 v 22 v 23   u21 + v 21 u22 + v 22 u23 + v 23 
– Scalar multiplication (.) is defined as follows:
 u11 u12 u13   ku11 ku12 ku13 
ku = k  = 
 u21 u22 u23   ku21 ku22 ku23 

– Zero element in M2x3 :

0 0 0
0 =  
 0 0 0 

20
Example 4 (cont) : M2x3 Vector Space

• In order to prove that M2x3 is a vector space, show that it satisfies the 10
axioms.
1. Closed under (+) Vector in
M2x3
 u11 + v11 u12 + v12 u13 + v13  Axiom 1 satisfied
u + v =  
 u21 + v 21 u22 + v 22 u23 + v 23 

2. Closed under (.) Vector in

 ku11 ku12 ku13  M2x3
ku =   Axiom 6 satisfied
 ku21 ku22 ku23 

3. There is a zero element (identity element of addition): u + 0 = u

 0 0 0   u11 u12 u13   u11 u12 u13  Axiom 4 satisfied

0 + u =   +  =  =u
 0 0 0   u21 u22 u23   u21 u22 u23 

21
Example 4 (cont): M2x3 Vector Space
4. There is an identity element of scalar multiplication, i.e. 1u = u
 u11 u12 u13   u11 u12 u13 
1u = 1 =  =u Axiom 10 satisfied
 u21 u22 u23   u21 u22 u23 

5. There is –u such that u + (-u) = 0

 u11 u12 u13   − u11 − u12 − u13 
− u = −1 = 
 u21 u22 u23   − u21 − u22 − u23 

 u11 u12 u13   − u11 − u12 − u13   0 0 0 

u + (− u) =  + = =0
 u21 u22 u23   − u21 − u22 − u23   0 0 0 
Axiom 5 satisfied

6. (+) commutative: u + v = v + u
 u11 + v11 u12 + v12 u13 + v13 
u + v =  
 u21 + v 21 u22 + v 22 u23 + v 23 
uij + v ij = v ij + uij
 v11 + u11 v12 + u12 v13 + u13 
v + u =   Axiom 2 satisfied
 v 21 + u21 v 22 + u22 v 23 + u23  u + v = v + u
22
Example 4 (cont): M2x3 Vector Space
7. (+) associative: (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
 u11 + v11 u12 + v12 u13 + v13   w11 w12 w13 
(u + v ) + w =  + 
 u21 + v 21 u22 + v 22 u23 + v 23   w 21 w 22 w 23 
 u11 + v11 + w11 u12 + v12 + w12 u13 + v13 + w 23 
=  
 u21 + v 21 + w 21 u22 + v 22 + w 22 u23 + v 23 + w 23 

 u11 u12 u13   v11 + w11 v12 + w12 v13 + w13 

u + (v + w ) =   +  
 u 21 u 22 u 23   v 21 + w 21 v 22 + w 22 v 23 + w 23 
 u11 + v11 + w11 u12 + v12 + w12 u13 + v13 + w 23 
=  
 u 21 + v 21 + w 21 u 22 + v 22 + w 22 u 23 + v 23 + w 23  Axiom 3 satisfied

8. (.) distributive over (+) : k (u+v) = ku + kv

 u11 + v11 u12 + v12 u13 + v13   ku11 ku12 ku13   kv11 kv12 kv13 
k (u + v ) = k   ku + kv =   +  
u +
 21 21 v u 22 + v 22 u 23 + v 23  ku
 21 ku 22 ku23   kv 21 kv 22 kv 23 

 ku11 + kv11 ku12 + kv12 ku13 + kv13   ku11 + kv11 ku12 + kv12 ku13 + kv13 
=   =  
 ku21 + kv21 ku22 + kv22 ku23 + kv23   ku21 + kv21 ku22 + kv22 ku23 + kv23 
Axiom 7 satisfied
23
Example 4 (cont): M2x3 Vector Space
9. (k + l)u = ku + lu
 u11 u12 u13   (k + l )u11 (k + l )u12 (k + l )u13 
(k + l )u = (k + l ) = 
 u21 u22 u23   (k + l )u21 (k + l )u22 (k + l )u23 
 ku11 + lu11 ku12 + lu12 ku13 + lu13 
=   = ku + lu
 ku21 + lu21 ku22 + lu22 ku23 + lu23  Axiom 8 satisfied

10. (.) associative: k(lu) = (kl)u

 lu11 lu12 lu13   klu11 klu12 klu13 

k (lu) = (k ) = 
 lu21 lu22 lu23   klu21 klu22 klu23  Axiom 9 satisfied
= (kl )u

24
Example 5: D3x3 Vector Space
• D3x3 is the set of all 3x3 diagonal matrix
  a11 0 0  
   
V = a : a =  0 a22 0  aii  R 
– Addition (+) is defined as follows:   0 0 a33  
  
 u11 0 0   v11 0 0 
   
u= 0 u22 0  v = 0 v 22 0 
 0 0 u33   0 0 v 33 
 
 u11 0 0   v11 0 0   u11 + v11 0 0 
     
u+v =  0 u22 0  +  0 v 22 0 = 0 u22 + v 22 0 
 0 0 u33   0 0 v 33   0 0 u33 + v 33 

– Scalar multiplication (.) is defined as follows:
 u11 0 0   ku11 0 0 
   
ku = k  0 u22 0  =  0 ku22 0 
 0 0 u33   0 0 ku33 

0 0 0
 
– Zero element in D3x3 : 0 = 0 0 0
0 0 0
 
25
Example 5 (cont): D3x3 Vector Space
• In order to prove that D3x3 is a vector space, show that all 10 axioms are satisfied.
1. Closed under (+) Vector in
 u11 + v11 0 0  D3x3
 
u+v =  0 u22 + v 22 0 
 Axiom 1 satisfied
 0 0 u33 + v 33 

2. Closed under (.)

Vector in
 ku11 0 0  Axiom 6 satisfied
  D2x3
ku =  0 ku22 0 
 0 0 ku33 

3. There is a zero element (identity element of addition): u + 0 = u
 0 0 0   u11 0 0   u11 0 0 
     
0 + u = 0 0 0 +  0 u22 0  =  0 u22 0  = u
0 0 0  0 0 u33   0 0 u33  Axiom 4 satisfied
  

26
Example 5 (cont): D3x3 Vector Space
4. There is an identity element of scalar multiplication, i.e. 1u = u
 u11 0 0   u11 0 0 
   
1u = 1 0 u22 0  =  0 u22 0  = u Axiom 10 satisfied
 0 0 u33   0 0 u33 


5. There is –u such that u + (-u) = 0

 u11 0 0   − u11 0 0 
   
− u = −1 0 u22 0  =  0 − u22 0 
 0 0 u33   0 0 − u33 

 u11 0 0   − u11 0 0  0 0 0
     
u + (− u) =  0 u22 0  +  0 − u22 0  = 0 0 0 = 0
 0 Axiom 5 satisfied
 0 u33   0 0 − u33   0 0 0 

6. (+) commutative: u + v = v + u
 u11 + v11 0 0   v11 + u11 0 0 
   
u+v =  0 u22 + v 22 0 = 0 v 22 + u22 0 
 0 0 u33 + v 33   0 0 v 33 + u33 

u+ v = v +u Axiom 2 satisfied

27
Example 5 (cont): D3x3 Vector Space
7. (+) associative: (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
 u11 + v11 0 0   w11 0 0 
   
(u + v ) + w =  0 u22 + v 22 0 + 0 w 22 0 
 0 0 u33 + v 33   0 0 w 33 

 u11 + v11 + w11 0 0 
 
= 0 u22 + v 22 + w11 0 
 0 0 u33 + v 33 + w 33 

 u11 0 0   v11 + w11 0 0 
   
= 0 u22 0  +  0 v 22 + w 22 0  = u + (v + w ) Axiom 3 satisfied
 0 0 u33   0 0 v 33 + w 33 


8. (.) distributive over (+): k (u+v) = ku + kv

 u11 + v11 0 0   ku11 + kv11 0 0 
   
k (u + v ) = k  0 u22 + v 22 0 = 0 ku22 + kv22 0 
 0 0  
u33 + v 33   0 0 ku33 + kv 33 

 ku11 0 0   kv11 0 0 
   
= 0 ku22 0 + 0 kv22 0 
 0 0 ku33   0 0 kv 33 

= ku + kv
Axiom 7 satisfied

28
Example 5 (cont): D3x3 Vector Space
9. (k + l)u = ku + lu
 u11 0 0   (k + l )u11 0 0 
   
(k + l )u = (k + l ) 0 u22 0  =  0 (k + l )u22 0 
 0 
0 u33    0 0 (k + l )u33 

 ku11 + lu11 0 0 
 
= 0 ku22 + lu22 0  = ku + lu
 0 0 ku33 + lu33  Axiom 8 satisfied


10. (.) associative: k(lu) = (kl)u

 lu11 0 0   klu11 0 0 
   
k (lu) = (k ) 0 lu22 0 = 0 klu22 0 
 0 0 lu33   0 0 klu33 
 Axiom 9 satisfied
= (kl )u

29
Example 6: C[a, b]

• C[a, b] is the set of all continuous real-valued functions on interval [a, b]

• Function f is continuous on point c in its domain if lim f ( x ) = f (c )

x →c

• A continuous real-valued function maps a set of real numbers to real

numbers.

• Example:
– f(x) = sin(x)
– Polynomial functions, e.g. : f(x) = ax2 + bx + c
• Not a continuous function

sin( x ) f(x) is not continuous when x = 0

f (x) =
x
30
Example 6: C[1, 3]

• C[1, 3] is the set of all real-valued functions that are continuous on the
interval [1,3]
C1,3  = f = f ( x ) : I → R, x  R

– Addition (+) is defined as follows:

f + g = ( f + g )( x ) = f ( x ) + g ( x )

– Scalar multiplication (.) is defined as follows:

kf = (kf )( x ) = kf ( x )

– Zero element in C[1, 3] :

0 = f0 ( x ) = 0, x  R
f0(x) is a function that maps any real number to 0.
Example 6: C[1, 3]

f ( x ) = x 2 + 2x + 1 g ( x ) = sin( x )

(f + g )( x ) = x 2 + 2 x + 1 + sin( x ) (10f )( x ) = 10(2 x + 1 + sin( x )) 32

Example 6 (cont): C[1, 3]
• In order to prove that C[1, 3] is a vector space, show that it satisfies the 10 axioms.
1. Closed under (+)

f + g = ( f + g )( x ) = f ( x ) + g ( x )
f(x) + g(x) is a continuous function (h(x)) in interval [1,3]
Axiom 1 satisfied
2. Closed under (.)
kf = (kf )( x ) = kf ( x )
kf(x) is a continuous function (h(x)) in interval [1,3]

Axiom 6 satisfied

3. There is a zero element (identity element of addition): f + 0 = f

f + 0 = f (x) + 0 = f (x) = f
Axiom 4 satisfied

33
Example 6 (cont): C[1, 3]
4. There is an identity element of scalar multiplication, i.e. 1f = f
Identity element is k=1
Axiom 10 satisfied
1 f = 1f ( x ) = f ( x ) = f
5. There is –f such that f + (-f) = 0
− f = −f ( x )

f + (− f ) = f ( x ) − f ( x ) = 0 = 0 Axiom 5 satisfied

6. (+) commutative: f + g = g + f
f + g = f (x) + g(x) = g(x) + f (x) = g + f

Addition of two real-valued function is commutative Axiom 2 satisfied

7. (+) associative: (f + g) + h = f + (g + h)
( f + g ) + h = (f + g )( x ) + h( x ) = (f + g + h)( x )
= f ( x ) + ( g + h )( x ) = f + (g + h) Axiom 3 satisfied

34
Example 6 (cont): C[1, 3]
8. (.) distributive over (+): k (f+g) = kf + kg
k ( f + g ) = k (f ( x ) + g ( x )) = k ((f + g )( x ))
= (kf + kg )( x ) = kf ( x ) + kg ( x )
= kf + kg Axiom 7 satisfied

9. (k + l)f = kf + lf
(k + l )f = (k + l )f ( x )
= (kf ( x )) + (lf ( x ))
= (kf ) + (lf ) Axiom 8 satisfied

10. (.) associative: k(lf) = (kl)f

k (lf ) = k (lf ( x ))
= (klf ( x ))
= (kl)f ( x )
= (kl)f Axiom 9 satisfied

35
Example 7: D[a, b]

• D[a, b] is the set of all differentiable functions in [a, b]

• A real-valued functions is differentiable on a point if its derivative exists

on that point.

• Example:
– f(x) = sin(x)

• Every differentiable function is continuous, but not all continuous

functions are differentiable

36
Example 7 (cont): D[0, 1]

• D[0, 1] is the set of all differentiable functions in [0,1]

– addition (+) is defined as follows:

f + g = ( f + g )( x ) = f ( x ) + g ( x )

– Scalar multiplication (.) is defined as follows:

kf = (kf )( x ) = kf ( x )
– Zero element in D[1, 3] :

0 = f0 ( x ) = 0, x  R

f0(x) is a function that maps any real number to 0.

37
Example 7 (cont): D[0, 1]
• In order to prove that D[0, 1] is a vector space, show it satisfies all 10 axioms.
1. Closed under (+)

f + g = (f + g )( x ) = f ( x ) + g ( x )

Axiom 1 satisfied
2. Closed under (.)
kf = (kf )( x ) = kf ( x )

Axiom 6 satisfied

3. There is a zero element (identity element of addition): f + 0 = f

f + 0 = f (x) + 0 = f (x) = f
Axiom 4 satisfied

38
Example 7 (cont): D[0, 1]
4. There is an identity element of scalar multiplication, i.e. 1f = f
The identity element is k=1
Axiom 10 satisfied
1 f = 1f ( x ) = f ( x ) = f
5. There is –f such that f + (-f) = 0
− f = −f ( x )

f + (− f ) = f ( x ) − f ( x ) = 0 = 0 Axiom 5 satisfied

6. (+) commutative: f + g = g + f
f + g = f (x) + g(x) = g(x) + f (x) = g + f

Axiom 2 satisfied

7. (+) associative: (f + g) + h = f + (g + h)
( f + g ) + h = (f + g )( x ) + h( x ) = (f + g + h)( x )
= f ( x ) + ( g + h )( x ) = f + (g + h) Axiom 3 satisfied

39
Example 7 (cont): D[0, 1]
8. (.) distributive over (+): k (f+g) = kf + kg
k ( f + g ) = k (f ( x ) + g ( x )) = k ((f + g )( x ))
= (kf + kg )( x ) = kf ( x ) + kg ( x )
Axiom 7 satisfied
= kf + kg

9. (k + l)f = kf + lf
(k + l )f = (k + l )f ( x )
= (kf ( x )) + (lf ( x ))
= (kf ) + (lf )

Axiom 8 satisfied
10. (.) associative: k(lf) = (kl)f
k (lf ) = k (lf ( x ))
= (klf ( x ))
= (kl)f ( x )
= (kl)f Axiom 9 satisfied

40
Example 8: P4
• P4: the set of all polynomials of degree 4 or less
P 4 = p : p( x ) = a0 x 0 + a1 x 1 + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + a4 x 4 , ai  R

– addition (+) is defined as follows:

p : p( x ) = a0 x 0 + a1 x 1 + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + a4 x 4
q : q( x ) = b0 x 0 + b1 x 1 + b2 x 2 + b3 x 3 + b4 x 4
p + q = ( p + q )( x )
= (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x 1 + (a2 + b2 )x 2 + (a3 + b3 )x 3 + (a4 + b4 )x 4
– Scalar multiplication (.) is defined as follows:
kp = (kp )( x )
= (ka0 ) + (ka1 )x 1 + (ka2 )x 2 + (ka3 )x 3 + (ka4 )x 4
– Zero element in P4 :
0 = 0 x 0 + 0 x1 + 0 x 2 + 0 x 3 + 0 x 4 = 0

41
Example 8 (cont): P4
• In order to prove that P4 is a vector space, show that it satisfies the 10 axioms.
1. Closed under (+)

p + q = (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x 1 + (a2 + b2 )x 2 + (a3 + b3 )x 3 + (a4 + b4 )x 4

Axiom 1 satisfied
2. Closed under (.)
kp = (ka0 ) + (ka1 )x 1 + (ka2 )x 2 + (ka3 )x 3 + (ka4 )x 4

Axiom 6 satisfied
3. There is a zero element (identity element of addition): p + 0 = p
p + 0 = (a0 + 0 ) + (a1 + 0 )x 1 + (a2 + 0 )x 2 + (a3 + 0 )x 3 + (a4 + 0 )x 4
= a0 + a1 x 1 + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + a4 x 4 = p
Axiom 4 satisfied

42
Example 8 (cont): P4
4. There is an identity element of scalar multiplication, i.e. 1p = p

1p = 1(a0 + a1 x 1 + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + a4 x 4 ) = p Axiom 10 satisfied

5. There is –p such that p+ (-p) = 0

− p = −1(a0 + a1 x 1 + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + a4 x 4 )
= −a0 − a1 x 1 − a2 x 2 − a3 x 3 − a4 x 4
p + (− p ) = (a0 − a0 ) + (a1 − a1 )x 1 + (a2 − a2 )x 2 + (a3 − a3 )x 3 + (a4 − a4 )x 4
= 0 + 0 x1 + 0 x 2 + 0 x 3 + 0 x 4 = 0 Axiom 5 satisfied

6. (+) commutative: p + q = q + p
p + q = (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x 1 + (a2 + b2 )x 2 + (a3 + b3 )x 3 + (a4 + b4 )x 4 (sifat komutatif penjumlahan bilangan real)

= (b0 + a0 ) + (b1 + a1 )x 1 + (b2 + a2 )x 2 + (b3 + a3 )x 3 + (b4 + a4 )x 4

p + q = q+p

Axiom 2 satisfied

43
Example 8 (cont): P4
7. (+) associative: (p + q) + r = p + (q + r)
e.g.: r = c0 x 0 + c1 x1 + c2 x 2 + c3 x 3 + c4 x 4
( p + q ) + r = ( a0 + b0 ) + ( a1 + b1 ) x1 + ( a2 + b2 ) x 2 + ( a3 + b3 ) x3 + ( a4 + b4 ) x 4 + ( c0 x 0 + c1 x1 + c2 x 2 + c3 x 3 + c4 x 4 )
= ( a0 + b0 + c0 ) + ( a1 + b1 + c1 ) x1 + ( a2 + b2 + c2 ) x 2 + ( a3 + b3 + c3 ) x 3 + ( a4 + b4 + c4 ) x 4

= ( a0 x 0 + a1 x1 + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + a4 x 4 ) + ( b0 + c0 ) + ( b1 + c1 ) x1 + ( b2 + c2 ) x 2 + ( b3 + c3 ) x 3 + ( b4 + c4 ) x 4
= p + (q + r )
Axiom 3 satisfied

8. (.) distributive over (+): k (p+q) = kp + kq

k (p + q) = k ((a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x 1 + (a2 + b2 )x 2 + (a3 + b3 )x 3 + (a4 + b4 )x 4 )

= (ka0 + kb0 ) + (ka1 + kb1 )x 1 + (ka2 + kb2 )x 2 + (ka3 + kb3 )x 3 + (ka4 + kb4 )x 4
= ((ka0 ) + (ka1 )x 1 + (ka2 )x 2 + (ka3 )x 3 + (ka4 )x 4 ) + ((kb0 ) + (kb1 )x 1 + (kb2 )x 2 + (kb3 )x 3 + (kb4 )x 4 )
= kp + kq

Axiom 7 satisfied

44
Example 8 (cont): P4
9. (k + l)p = kp + lp

(k + l )p = (k + l )(a0 + a1 x 1 + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + a4 x 4 )
= ((k + l )a0 + (k + l )a1 x 1 + (k + l )a2 x 2 + (k + l )a3 x 3 + (k + l )a4 x 4 )
= ((ka0 + la0 ) + (ka1 + la1 )x 1 + (ka2 + la2 )x 2 + (ka3 + la3 )x 3 + (ka4 + la4 )x 4 )
= kp + lp Axiom 8 satisfied

10. (.) associative: k(lp) = (kl)p

k (lp ) = (k )(la0 + la1 x 1 + la2 x 2 + la3 x 3 + la4 x 4 )
= (kla0 + kla1 x 1 + kla2 x 2 + kla3 x 3 + kla4 x 4 )
= kl(a0 + a1 x 1 + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + a4 x 4 )
= (kl )p
Axiom 9 satisfied

45
Exercise 1

1. Given Z : set of all integers. Is (Z, +, .) a vector space?

2. Is (Mnxn, +, .) a vector space over R?

3. Given D2x2 the set of all 2x2 matrices. The addition is defined as usual.
However, the definition of scalar multiplication is as follows:
k*A = 0
for any scalar k and matrix A є D2x2, O is the zero matrix. is (D2x2 , + ,
*) a vector space?

Answer 1. No 2. Yes 3. No

46
Properties of Vector Space

Given vector space V. For every vector u and scalar k :

a) 0u = 0
b) k0 = 0
c) (-1)u = -u
d) If ku = 0, then k = 0 or u = 0
 Rn Vector Space

General Vector Spaces

Subspace

Linear Dependency
Linear Combination

Spanning Set

Basis and Dimension

Rowspace, Columnspace,
Nullspace
Rank and Nullity

5.2 Subspace

48
Subspace

Definition 5.2: Subspace

The subset W of V is a subspace of V if W is a vector space with the same addition
and scalar multiplication as V.

Example 10:
P4 and P3 are vector spaces with the same algebra operations.
• P3 is a subset of P4.
• P3 is a subspace of P4.

R2 is not a subset of R3

49
Examples of Subspaces

• D[0, 1] is a subspace of C[0, 1] . Every differentiable function is

continuous.

• D2x2 is a subspace of M2x2.

• P3 is not a subspace of M2x2 because P3 is not a subset of

M2x2.

• (D2x2, +, *) in exercise 1 no. 3, is not a subspace of M2x2,

because it is not a vector space.

50
Examples of subspaces

D3x3: the set of all 3x3 diagonal matrix is a subspace.

I3x3 : the set of all 3x3 invertible matrix is not a

subspace. It is not closed under addition and I3x3 D3x3
scalar multiplication.
Example: 2 invertible matrix but the result of addition
is not an invertible matrix. M3x3

1 0 0 0 2 1  1 2 1 
     
a = 0 1 0 b = 0 1 0 a + b = 0 1 0
0 0 1  1 2 0 1 2 1 
det(a ) = 1 det(b ) = −1 det(a + b ) = 0
Exercise 2: subspaces of M2x2

Are the following subspaces of M2x2?

• The set of all invertible 2 x 2 matrices
(+) tidak tertutup
a 1
• The set of all 2 x 2 matrices that has a general form
1 a
  (+) tidak tertutup

•
 a 0
The set of all 2 x 2 matrices that has a general form

0 b 
 
• The set of all 2 x 2 matrices

0 0 
• The set  
0 0 
Proving W is a subspace of V
W is a nonempty subset of V. Addition and scalar multiplication in W is the
same as in V. W is a vector space if and only if it satisfies:
1. W closed under addition
2. u +v=v+u
3. u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w
4. There is a 0 in W, zero vector, such that 0 + u = u + 0 = u for every u in W
5. For every u in W, there is a negative –u in W such that u + (-u) = (-u) + u =
0
6. W closed under scalar multiplication
7. k(u + v) = ku + kv
8. (k + l)u = ku + lu
9. k(lu) = (kl)u
10. 1u = u
Proving a subspace

• How do we prove that a subset of a vector space is a subspace? There

are 10 axioms of a vector space that a subspace must satisfy. However,
there are axioms that are already proven (inheritance) and others that
still need to be proven. In other words, we do not need to prove all 10
axioms of a vector space.

Theorema5.1:
If W is a subset of V containing one or more vectors from V, then W is a subspace of
V if and only if.
a. If u and v are vectors in W, then u + v is also in W
b. For any scalar k and any vector in W, then ku is also in W.

54
Subspace W of vector space V

For W to be a subspace of V:
1. W is a nonempty subset of V
2. Addition and scalar multiplication is the same as in V, W satisfies all
10 axioms of a vector space.

Proving W is a subspace.
1. W is a nonempty subset of V,
2. W is closed under addition, and
3. W is closed under scalar multiplication
 Trivial Subspaces
V ruang vektor

{0}
0

{0} vector space

• {0} and V are trivial subspaces of V

• Every vector space must have a subspace, at least itself and {0}.
• {0} is a vector space with one subspace, i.e. itself.
Reflection

Write a brief essay about:

“Every vector space is a subspace and every subspace is a

vector space”

57
Summary:
Examples of vector spaces over R
• The set of real numbers
• The set of vectors in R2
• The set of vectors in R3
• The set of vectors in Rn
• The set of polynomials of degree n or less.
• The set of m x n matrices
• The set of continuous functions in [a, b]
• The set of differentiable functions in [a, b]
• The set of all infinite sequences
Prepare for Module 5 (part b)