REVIEWER 2ND QUARTER 1.

Unilineal
2. Non unilineal
LESSON 9: WHAT ARE THE STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF
GROUPS IN THE SOCIETY
Unilineal Descent - Refers to the tracing of ancestry through
only one parent, either the mother’s or the father’s line, not
Groups - A Set of individiuals who share the same motives,
the combination of the two.
goals, norms, and values that guide the conduct of its
members. Matrilineal descent - An ego that belongs to the matrilineal
descent refers to his or her ancestry through the female line.
Aggregate - Temporarily occupy the same location but do not
(Refer to the image). Ego’s female ancestors are related to
know each other
him or her.
Category - People share the same characteristics but do not
Patrilineal descent - refers to tracing descent through the
have a sense of belongingness with other people
male line. In societies that use patrilineal descent, children
Primary Groups - Consists of people with “intimate, fate-to- both males and females, belong to their father’s kin Only
face interactions” marked by shared values, culture, and males can pass on their family identity to their children.
concern for one another.
Double Descent or Bilineal - In this rare cognatic descent,
Secondary Group - Groups consists of a greater number of males and females are traced both matrilineally and
members who have impersonal ties and are presumably held patrilineally. However, inheritance and obligations descend
together by common goals. only to one side.

Iron Law of Oligarchy as Applied to Groups - The concept in Ambilineal descent - allow parents to choose which side of
which a small elite group of people will stand out and take the kin to affiliate their children. Membership decisions are
control of the information and decision-making of the certain normally decided upon marriage.
group.
Bilateral descent - In bilateral descent, an ego is equally
In-groups – refers to groups we strongly identify with. related to both mother’s and father’s side of the kin. In this
system, an ego creates links to everyone part of the kin, even
Out-groups – Refers to groups we feel antagonistic about those that are not part of the blood line.
Reference Group - Groups you set as benchmarks or Marriage - Is a characteristics of human relations and social
standards to your behavior. We measure ourselves against groupings that exist in all cultures. It is socially recognized
members in this group relation that involves emotional and physical intimacy, sexual
Social Network – The connection and links formed between reproduction, companionship, legal rights, and inheritance.
people. This can be achieved by networking or the act of Monogamy - is a marriage between a man and a woman that
getting to know more people, usually for career or is a widely accepted norm worldwide.
educational opportunities and advancement.
Polygyny - Is a type of marriage that permits a man to marry
LESSON 10: HOW ARE WE RELATED TO ONE ANOTHER more than one woman.
Kinship System - It is imperative to learn the basic principles Polyandry - Tibet cultures practice this system. It is an
of kinship to make sense of it. Social scientist explore kin uncommon practice of marriage, which is opposite of
relations that can be through consanguineal or affinal. Kinship polygyny.
is one of the most complex systems of culture. All human
groups have a kinship terminology to refer to kin. Endogamy - Is marriage within a group. It is a practice where
an individual chooses who to marry within a specific social
Functions of Kinship - This inheritance perspective of kinship group, ethnic group, or in a caste system.
is the vertical function. Another function is horizontal, which
refers to the ties of people across a single generation through Exogamy - Is a social norm of marrying outside of social
marriage. group. The two are culturally bounded. That means details of
marriage depend on how culture develops its processes.
Descent - Descent groups are permanent social unit whose
members claim common ancestry. Membership is lifelong Residence Rules - After marriage a newlywed couple
and determined at birth. It also refers to the rules of culture establishes their own family. Since the family is the basic unit
uses to establish affiliations with one’s parents. of economic cooperation and stability, parents provide the
necessary support for its members.
There are two types of rules of descent
Biology and Marriage - Cultures establish their marriage of the group. This makes him more permanent and makes
systems according to the accepted ideas that are relative him carry more responsibilities in maintaining his greater
across the globe. Some produce rules that forbid sexual number of constituents.
relations with certain blood relatives.
States - Is a political organization which, through the
Fictive Kinship - Is a term to describe a form of kinship government, exercises sovereign rule over a population
neither on consanguineal nor affinal ties.it recognizes kinship within a defined territory.
obligations beyond biological.
Theological - pertains to theology, which is the study of the
LESSON 11: WHAT ARE POLITICAL ORGANIZATION divine, religious doctrines, and the nature of the divine. In the
context of legitimacy and authority, the term "theological" is
Political Organizations - Are defined as groups responsible for often associated with religious or divine justification for
political and social cohesiveness, economic growth, and governance.
safety from internal and external threats.
Charismatic - refers to a type of leadership or authority that
The Role of Power, Authority, and Legitimacy in Political is based on the personal qualities, charm, and magnetism of
Organizations an individual rather than on formal power or institutional
structures. Charismatic leaders have a compelling and
Power - Is defined as the exercise of will or force in order to
captivating presence that inspires devotion and loyalty
achieve the desired outcome.
among their followers.
Authority - Which pertains to the ability to bring about result
Rational Legal - Leaders who derive their authority from
through one’s status, reputation, and degree of respect
rational-legal legitimacy are expected to follow established
received from its constituents.
laws and rules, and their authority is often institutionalized in
Legitimacy - Refers to the right and acceptance of one’s governmental structures. This form of legitimacy is a key
power and authority without the threat of exercise of force. aspect of modern democratic systems where leaders are
elected through legal processes and govern within the
Kinds of Political Organizations - There are four (4) basic framework of established laws and constitutions.
kinds of political organizations based on the development of
societies from being nomadic and decentralized towards Relevance of Political Organizations
being centralized and settling down distinct or demarcated
Elman Rogers Service - Posited in 1962 that societies undergo
territory.
various stages of social evolution. These stage are composed
Bands - Is a small group of mostly nomadic people in pursuit of specific political organizations which fit the structural and
of a particular goal to ensure their survival and subsistence economic needs of the people
through foraging and at times hunting.

Band Leader - Does not hold formal power over the band but
LESSON 12: HOW DOES THE ECONOMY WORK
mostly coordinates the movement such as the hunting and
foraging activities of the group.
Economy - Refers to the system which facilities the
Tribes - is a political group composed of several bands, movement of goods and services from the production stage
occupying a particular territory with each having a common to distribution, and finally, to consumption.
language and way of living.
Goods - Refer to all commodities such as food and clothing to
Tribal leader - may vary from one tribe to another. Most of luxury items as cars and jewelry.
the time, a leader is selected based on the numbers and
Services - Refer to actions or activities done for an individual
strength of his following. He is expected to practice political
or a group.
leadership and economic management by fulfilling tasks such
as internal and external conflict resolution, determining the Why do we need to study the economy? The necessity to
time of planting, harvesting, and moving herds, and taking pay attention to the economy boils down to the basic
charge of seasonal feasts and celebrations principle that resources are scarce. Be it the crops that
provide us with food, the number of employees in a
Chiefdoms - which is composed of allied tribes and villages
company, or the money we possess, resources need to be
under one chief which can reach up to thousands of
managed.
members.
Reciprocity and Redistribution
Chief - is considered to be an “office” or an “institution”
rather than just someone who leads the economic activities
Reciprocity - Generally refers to the value of giving an object, Fourth Industrial Revolution - In 2016, World Economic
gift, or service in turn for something you received. From the Forum founder and executive chairman Klaus Schwab
perspective of attaining social gain, reciprocity is an obligation declared that we are now entering the fourth industrial
cultivating a culture of giving, receiving, and repaying gifts. revolution – an economic stage integrating the physical,
digital, and biological spheres. Springing from the information
Generalized Reciprocity - Is giving without immediately
age, people now possess mobile phones, laptops, and other
expecting the corresponding return.
gadgets with immense computing power capable of
“Papautangin kita, inaanak ko naman ‘yang anak mo” processing information and connecting them with anyone in
the world at very fast rates
Balanced Reciprocity - Is giving while expecting an immediate
return in the exchange. Digital Natives - Those born in the digital age and are well-
versed in using digital technology.
“Ang utang ay utang, dapat mo akong bayaran”
Digital Migrants - Those born or brought up before the
Negative Reciprocity - Happens when one of the parties tries widespread use of digital technology.
to gain more our of the exchange, thereby taking advantage
of the other party. Economic Sectors

“Hindi naman siya naniningil, so bakit ako magbabayad” Primary Sector Primary Sector of the economy deals with the
extraction of raw materials from the environment.
Brief Economic History - With economic systems operating
on the basis of the scarcity of resources, its configuration Secondary Sector - Secondary Sector of the economy involves
changes based on factors such as land, labor, and capital. The the conversion of raw materials into finished products. The
needs of the people combined with the availability, access, manufacturing industry mainly comprises the secondary
and utilization of these factors lead to the fulfillment of sector from iron and steel to auto parts and electronics
current needs and maintenance of their current lifestyles.
Tertiary Sector - The tertiary sector, also known as the service
Hunting and Gathering - Hunting and gathering in the earliest sector, is a segment of the economy that provides services to
societies serve as the precursor of the economic system. Until consumers, businesses, and other parts of the economy.
11,000 or 12,000 years ago, humans foraged for food by Unlike the primary sector (which involves the extraction of
hunting or fishing and gathering vegetation. raw materials) and the secondary sector (which involves
manufacturing and construction), the tertiary sector is
Agricultural Economy - From hunting and gathering, the centered around intangible goods and services.
discovery and eventual reliance on agriculture drastically
changed the people’s means of survival and, by extent, their Quaternary Sector - The quaternary sector is a subset of the
lifestyle. By knowing how to till the land, to store harvested broader tertiary (service) sector in the economy. It specifically
crops, and to raise animals, people also learned to manage refers to economic activities that involve the handling and
these resources. processing of information and knowledge. This sector is
characterized by high-level intellectual and research-related
Industrial Revolution - The second half of the 18th century activities. In the quaternary sector, professionals are often
until the early 19th century witnessed the industrial involved in the creation, distribution, and application of
revolution marked by technological advancements that led to knowledge.
the rise of factories and industrial complexes. The industrial
revolution led to the centralization of labor with people from
different towns and rural areas flocking to the cities to work
Economic Systems - Is defined as the mechanism set by the
in factories. One of the significant inventions in this era was
state in allocating resources and in producing and distributing
the steam engine created by James Watt in 1765.
goods and services to the population.
Information Age/Post-Industrial Society - By the 20th
Capitalism - The main trust of the capitalist system lies on the
century, another technological milestone was underway with
private ownership of the means of production (raw materials,
the introduction of machine automation. As machines began
tools, and machinery) which are considered as sources of
to expand their capabilities in factories, the dependency on
wealth.
human labor dwindled in the manufacturing sector. This led
to the emergence of the service and digital industries where Socialism - Is the opposite of the capitalist system wherein
the nature of work revolved around clerical or administrative the means of production are instead collectively owned by
tasks, field-specific professions, and management. the state.
Mixed Economy - Are those classified in between the International Organization - Are independent bodies that
capitalist and socialist economic systems. Most states are provide venue for democratic discussion of different states on
classified as mixed economies but there are two particular certain issues.
models implemented in Europe, Latin America , Asia: Welfare
Development Agencies - Are established in order to assist in
state and state capitalism.
the recovery of different states from damages brought by
Welfare State - In Europe such as Germany, France, Belgium, natural calamities or war.
Netherlands, and the Nordic countries generally implement a
LESSON 13: WHAT IS THERE A NEED FOR EDUCATION
market-based economy with several state-initiated, socialized
programs such as healthcare and education.
Functions of Education
Snapshot of the Philippine Economy - According to the 2018
Education - is considered as a social institution which serves
Philippine Statistics Authority economic report, the economy
various objectives primarily about teaching and learning a
grew by 6.2% in 2018 which was a few percentage points
society’s way of life. Education’s functions can be generally
slower than the reported 6.7% GDP growth in 2017.
classified into two categories: manifest functions and latent
functions.

Non-State Institutions - Apart from the government, other Manifest functions - refer to the primary and intended
institutions come into play in making the state economy functions of an institution or policy.
work. These non-state institutions can come in different
Latent functions - are its unintended results. Education has
forms and perform different functions which affect the
four commonly recognized manifest functions: socialization,
economy or policymaking of the state. This section provides a
cultural transmission and innovation, social integration and
background on five non-state institutions and how they affect
control, and social placement.
the economy and the state.
Manifest Functions
Banks and Corporation
Socialization - Before education was institutionalized, it was
Banks- are financial institutions that have two main functions.
left to each family and community to teach the young ones
First, banks collect cash deposits from customers in exchange
their way of life in order to survive as they grow older.
for financial services.
Cultural Innovation and Transmission - Schools and
Corporations - Are non-state institutions established by
universities as establishments also have their respective
individuals or groups (called “shareholders”) to conduct
cultures. Educational institutions seek to impart values such
business activities.
as discipline, perseverance, excellence, respect, and
Cooperatives and Trade Unions nationalism among students. As students continue to learn
and conduct research, they begin to pick up new ideas and
Cooperatives - Are defined by the international Labor practices which would in turn improve their way of life.
organizations (ILO) as “an autonomous association of persons
united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social Social Integration and Control - Educational institutions also
and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned transmit and reinforce the dominant social norms, beliefs,
and democratically controlled enterprise”. and values on the students such as conformity and respect
for other socio-political institutions such as the family, the
Trade or Labor Unions - Are defined by the ILO as “as a government, and religion.
workers” organization constituted for the purpose of
furthering and defending the interests of workers. Social Placement - From the socialization process to the
transmission of culture and social integration, the objective of
Transnational Advocacy Groups and International the education system is to prepare the students for having a
Organizations job. Social placement contributes to this objective by
establishing a rewards and matching system which “rewards”
Transnational Advocacy Groups - Refer to a network of
students for their hard work and matches or groups them
groups from different countries together on calling for
together according to their abilities.
solutions to social, political, and economic issues such as
labor rights, indigenous peoples rights, right of women and Latent Functions
children, and environmental conversation, among others.
Restricting Youth Activities - Schools and universities restrict
youth activity by keeping them off the streets and off the job
market. By keeping them in school and off the streets, the
youth can be developed into productive individuals and Despite the differences in the levels they cater to, both
members of society. national bodies are expected to coordinate with each other in
education policies and curricula.
Forming Networks - Through school activities and university
programs, students can also start to form their own K-12 Basic Education Program - The Philippine education
networks. Going to school is not solely about acquiring system underwent major changes in 2013 as the K-12 basic
knowledge in different fields but also getting to know other education program was introduced. The K-12 program starts
people, or networking. with kindergarten followed by six years of primary education,
four years of Junior High School, and concludes with two
Creation of Generation Gaps - Technological development in
years of Senior High School.
recent years is seen in the mass production of electronic
gadgets such as smartphones and computers together with Salient Features - K-12 has six salient features that seek to lay
the rise of social media usage and online community down the rationale and objectives of each level in the
membership. program. From getting the child to adjust early to formal
education to teaching relevant topics with the use of Mother
Perspectives in Education - As an institution, education is also
Tongue and ensuring seamless learning, these features
viewed in different ways. Some view education based on its
contain the building blocks of the basic education program.
role in society, others view it on how it affects social order
and structure. There are also some who choose to focus on Education Infrastructure - country’s education infrastructure
the dynamics within classrooms and how learning is is usually composed of spaces and equipment which facilitate
conducted. There are three general perspectives in a student’s learning. This would include classrooms, libraries,
education: the functionalist perspective, the conflict laboratories, computer or technology rooms, and services
perspective, and the social interactionist perspective. such as electricity and internet connectivity.

Functionalist Perspective -The discussion on the manifest Accessibility - Accessibility to education remains to be one of
and latent functions of education all fall under the the major hurdles in the Philippines. In the pilot
functionalist perspective. Proponents of the functionalist Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) report released by the
perspective explain that in order for society to ensure its well- Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA) in 2018, it showed that
being and stability, its members or parts must serve their role education had the largest contribution to the overall
or function properly. deprivation of Filipino families at 36.5 percent in 2016 and
36.9 percent in 2017.
Conflict Perspective - Conflict theorists on the other hand see
education as a tool wielded by elites to assert their Issues on the Salary and Career Development of Teachers
dominance and maintain inequality in society. These Teachers bear the responsibility of shaping the minds and
inequalities may be in terms of socioeconomic status, race, values of students. They are expected to deliver quality
and values. education that would equip students when they eventually
venture out into the ‘real world’.
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective - While functionalism
and conflict theorists look at the broader effects of education, LESSON 14: WHY ARE RELIGIONS AND BELIEF SYSTEMS
symbolic interactionism theorists look at the interactions that FOUND IN ALL CULTURES
occur inside the classroom. Sociologists Ray Rist and George
Farkas conducted separate studies whose findings show that Religion - is communitas (Turner, 1969). It is a spiritual
students are affected by and respond to teacher community where people experience togetherness and
expectations. belongingness and encapsulates the idea of solidarity and
equality. Religion is a social institution that social scientists
Education in the Philippine Context - The Filipinos’ right to recognize to exist and organized through sets of beliefs,
education is stipulated in the 1987 Constitution. According to behaviors, values, and norms of people.
Article 14, Section 1, “The State shall protect and promote
the right of all citizens to quality education at all levels and The Birth of Religion - Nobody knows how religion started.
shall take appropriate steps to make such education Some descriptions about its origin are speculative in nature
accessible to all.” and inconclusive. In the history of humankind, there are
shreds of evidence that are documented about spiritual
DepEd and CHED: Mandates and Missions - The education beliefs.
system is managed by two separate administrative bodies.
Primary and secondary education are headed by the Aspects of Religious Belief - It is composed of sacred stories
Department of Education (DepEd) while higher education is or narratives that members deem important and believe in.
managed by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED). Beliefs are taught to followers and passed on to generations.
The expression and transfer of belief over succeeding
generations come in two main forms: the myth— narratives the most influential and largest religious group, which is an
about supernatural forces or beings; and the doctrine—direct ecclesia.
and formalized statements about religious belief.
Cult - is a new religious group that is small, extreme, and at
Shamans - are usually part-time spiritual practitioners, more great odds with the norms and values of the larger society.
often male than females, who attempt to heal the sick, bring They often exist on the margins of society and exploit their
good fortune, guard against evil and ill fortune and predict members.
the future by seeking to control supernatural forces.
Sect - is relatively small and a new religious group that is a
Sorcerers or witches - are those generally thought to bring subset of a religion or denomination. Sects are not cults. It is
harm to people in their society. Lastly, mediums are part-time a religious offshoot of other groups. This type of religious
spiritual practitioners who seek supernatural intervention in organization forms due to their perceived need to reform
healing or prophecy while in a trance state. religion.

Mangkukulam and Mambabarang - are magic practitioners. Denomination - is a large and mainstream religious
Mangkukulam (sorcerer) is a person that uses or employing organization. It is a religious group that slightly differs its
dark magic, sorcery, or witchcraft to curse and inflict harm on beliefs from other groups but share the same religion.
people.
Ecclesia - A large religious is recognized nationally and holds a
FORMS OF RELIGIONS religious monopoly.

Animism - is the earliest and most primary form of religion LESSON 15: WHAT ARE THE CULTURAL PERCEPTION OF
encountered in non-industrialized societies. It refers to the HEALTH
belief in spiritual beings and forces. Specifically, it is the
notion that natural objects, animate and inanimate, are Disease - in the lens of biomedicine exists from a physical and
imbued with spirits. organic standpoint (Fabrega, 1997). It is a biological problem
that involves irregularity in the human body structure,
Polytheism - From the greek word “polytheismos” or many chemistry, and function (Hann & Indorn,2009). The generic
gods. idea of diseases derives from a specific physical cause or
etiology (the manner of causation of a disease or condition).
Monotheism - It is the belief in one supreme being. It is a
religious experience and a philosophical perspective that Illness - refers to an individual’s perception and experience of
emphasizes one perfect creator of the world. It is mostly what is wrong with his or her well-being. It is a problem that
associated with Jewish, Christian, and Islamic religions that may be a result of a cultural belief. Societies have different
arose against the polytheism of the Near East. explanations for why illness exists in a person. Culture can
also affect our health and well-being through what we eat,
Atheism - Atheism is the lack of belief in the existence of gods
how we protect and expose ourselves to the roots of health
or deities. An atheist is someone who does not believe in the
problems. There are several cultural reasons why people in
existence of gods or a higher power. Atheism is not a specific
the Philippines become sick based on ethnographic research
belief system, philosophy, or religion; rather, it is a position or
of F. Landa Jocano (1966)
stance regarding the question of the existence of deities.
Medical Pluralism - These can be culture-based or scientific,
HINDU TRINITY
which are options of people now to enhance their well-being
Brahma - The creator god responsible for the creation of the and extend their life expectancy. The co-existence or the
universe. availability of the two options in society.
Shiva: The destroyer god who is also associated with
Health in the Context of Culture - Culture defines many
regeneration and transformation.
aspects of health. It provides us systems on how we explain,
Vishnu: The preserver god who maintains the order and
protect ourselves, and maintain our well-being. At the same
harmony of the universe.
time, it also exposes us to reasons why we get ill.
Shiva - In Hinduism, Shiva is one of the principal deities and is
Industrialized societies see the disease as a natural scientific
often referred to as "The Destroyer"
phenomenon.

Ethnomedicine - is a cultural practice that addresses health

Types of Monotheistic Organization - Social scientists,
problems. It involves treatments that make use of the
specifically sociologists, utilize a scheme to classify and
resources around the environment. It is conceived within the
categorize the diverse systems of monotheism. They look into
frameworks and practices of culture to solve cultural health
the size as well as the influence of a certain religion. It can
problems.
range from least influential and small in size, called a cult, to
Healers and the Healing Processes - In rural areas, a healer Kshatriya, Vaishva, and Shudra. Each caste has an assigned
explains the condition and uses rituals to heal a sick person. role in society as shown in the table below.
As mentioned by Jocano (1966), healers are cultural
Class System - The class system on the other hand provides
personalities (Jocano,1966). A person destined to become
the status of an individual based on several categories. It may
one undergoes a rigorous apprenticeship process or a rite of
be based on material possessions, prestige, and
passage. They acquire the skill in diagnosing, such as
achievements or merits. While an individual’s status is initially
memorizing both plants to use as medicine and the ritual to
determined at birth, the class system is more open to
perform for a specific illness.
opportunities and actions which may allow the individual to
Health and Superstitions - Ancient superstitious beliefs on gain social mobility and achieve a higher status compared to
illness and disease are still observable in our daily lives. those under the caste system. The class system is present in
Supernatural beings still play a role in how illness and disease modern economies that provide more roles and occupations
are perceived in many cultures today. Sometimes, this beyond farming.
perspective prevents Filipinos from getting better and
Country case 2: United Kingdom - The United Kingdom has
accurate healthcare. Superstitions sometimes are irrational
experienced a mix of caste and class systems. In the Middle
beliefs but continue to shape the values and actions of most
Ages, the United Kingdom practiced the estate system similar
of us.
to a caste system where individuals were classified into three
Access to Health Care System as a Human Right - There are groups or estates.
huge structural differences among health care systems
First Estate - is comprised of the clergy. Some are local priests
around the world. Societies with aggressive and pro- active
who lived by simple means while others belong to higher
health care systems have different perspectives in
positions whose organizations owned vast tracks of land.
Globalization, Health, and Culture - Globalization offers
Second Estate - refers to the nobility from the royal family
tremendous possibilities in health care systems. Nations are
down to the lesser nobles.
interconnected and help each other gain access to modern
medicine and technology in making people healthier. Third Estate - refers to the commoners who, at the time,
were mostly illiterate and had no access to resources that
Social Sciences and Health - Health is both scientific and
would allow them to move up the social ladder.
cultural. The aspects of social sciences are as equally
important as those of the natural sciences. It is because Country Case 3: Ifugao society in the Philippines - The Ifugao
people’s health occurs within cultural systems. Fields under in the Philippines is an agricultural-based society. This makes
the social sciences help in uncovering and revealing the nature of their class system largely determined by the
underlying concepts that pertain to the nature of health ownership of rice lands and the scale of the capability to
systems. produce rice. There are three general classes that comprise
the Ifugao society: the kadangyan, the natumok, and the
LESSON 16: WHAT DRIVES STRATIFICATION IN SOCIETY
nawatwat.
Social Stratification - is therefore a system dividing people
Kadangyan - represents the highest class or the aristocracy.
and groups into different levels according to a hierarchy of
They own vast tracks of rice fields which makes them capable
property, power, identities, and prestige.
of producing large quantities of rice. The kadangyan status is
Major Systems of Stratification further manifested through the sponsorship of uyauwe feasts
attended by a great number of people where plenty of food,
Caste System - A society under a caste system determines the particularly rice and rice wine, is served.
status of an individual upon birth. Practiced mostly in
agricultural societies, the status of individuals is lifelong. This Natumok - refers to the middle class in their class structure.
is because the lifestyle in the context of agricultural societies They have ample rice good to supply their needs for almost a
requires hard work along with daily routines which means year. Once their supply dries up, they usually have no choice
people are expected to dedicate their life fulfilling their roles but to borrow rice from the kadangyan at very high interest
and duties. rates, sometimes double, a few months after harvest time.
These rates and cycle of borrowing prevent the natumok
Country case 1: India - India’s caste system is one of the from reaching the kadangyan status.
notable examples of this type of social stratification. Practiced
for more than 2,000 years, this particular caste system is Nawatwat - belong to the lowest stratum in the Ifugao class
based on their religion (Hinduism) rather than ethnicity or system. They are characterized as poverty-stricken because
race. The system has four major castes or varnas: Brahman, they either own very small plots of land, or sometimes do not
own land at all. They usually work for the kadangyan as Examples are United States, United Kingdom, Germany,
tenant farmers. Canada, and Japan.

How The Ruling Class Maintains The Social Hierarchy Industrializing states - have relatively lower incomes,
infrastructure, and standards of living compared to
Controlling ideas - double-edged tools that can either control
industrialized states but whose economies are growing at a
or emancipate people. When the Spaniards colonized the
higher rate than developing states. Examples are India,
Philippines for three centuries, religion played a key role in
Malaysia, Mexico, and Brazil.
subjugating Filipinos and preventing them from fighting for
independence. During the American occupation, they instilled Developing states - have high poverty incidences, few
the idea of democracy with the supposed intent of preparing industries, and low standards of living. Examples are
Filipinos to run the country while suppressing rebellion and Cambodia, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Somalia.
having thousands of Filipinos killed in the process.
Theories of Global Stratification
Controlling information - In order to maintain their
Modernization Theory - The Modernization Theory was
legitimacy, the elite or members of the ruling class would also
developed from the Second World War onto the Cold War.
control information. The past decades have shown different
According to the Modernization Theory, modern and
measures on how information control was conducted from
industrialized societies are more productive, have reduced
having media blackouts, mass arrests of journalists, and the
poverty levels, and have higher standards of living
selective release of information. As we enter the post-truth
era, political and economic organizations also resort to World Systems Theory - The World Systems Theory was
spreading disinformation or different versions of information developed by a team of researchers headed by Immanuel
in an effort to either divert attention or induce doubt and Wallerstein in the 1970s as a response to the changing
divide. economic conditions where international trade and finance
were becoming more flexible as capitalist influence
Technology and Social Networks - channels through which
strengthened.
information and idea control are implemented. Traditional
networks such as friends, colleagues, and association Core states - refer to Western countries such as Britain and
memberships can be utilized either as a source of information France which industrialized rapidly and rose to the top as rich
or as the channel for false information to go through. On the states.
other hand, technology is developed to gather information
through surveillance equipment and to release sparse or false Semi-periphery - states are those around the Mediterranean
information through communication and social media that became heavily reliant on trading with core states which
networks led to their stagnation

Social Mobility - Social mobility, or the movement of a person Theories of Global Stratification
from one social status to another, is possible in fairly open
Periphery - states are those which traded cash crops to core
social stratification systems such as a class system.
states and had their resources continuously extracted which
Intragenerational mobility - refers to one’s change in social made them less developed.
status within his or her lifetime.
Dependency Theory - This theory was developed by Latin
Intergenerational mobility - refers to the change of social American scholars in the 1950s. Although similar to the World
status of the children in relation to their parents implying a Systems Theory, the Dependency Theory takes the point of
longer-term change in social hierarchy. view of the Third World developing countries.

Horizontal mobility - implies an individual’s change in Maintaining the Global Hier

occupation along the same level as his/her current status.
Eocolonialism - where trade and international markets are
Vertical status - results from ones moving up in terms of used to control and extract resources from developing
social status. countries.

Global Stratification - states are classified as industrialized, Corporations - to facilitate exports and imports, hire cheap
industrializing, and least industrialized or developing states. labor, and establish market dominance especially in
developing countries.
Industrialized states - are those with a high per capita
income, large- scale industries and infrastructure, high Technological Innovations - not only to scale up or expand
standard of living, and high human development standards. their respective industries but also to generate products they
can sell at the dictated price, leading to tremendous amounts These inequalities branch out to several issues experienced in
of profit and, with it, power. different cultures.

LESSON 17: WHAT ARE THE SOURCES OF CULTURAL, Ethnicity pertains to individuals identifying with each based
POLITICAL, AND SOCIAL CHANGE? on common ancestry and culture. Several factors cause
interethnic conflicts.
Exploring Change - Society is not static it continues to change
and develop over time. Can you imagine living in a world Interethnic conflict may take the form of any of the
without jeepneys, buses, or cars as everyday means of following:
transportation? Or a world without mobile phones, laptops,
 Genocide: The dominant group exterminates the
and tablets to communicate with your friends and loved
minority groups
ones? How about a world without war and conflict, where
 Population transfer: Minority groups are driven out
people are equal regardless of race, gender, or class? These
of the land
are some of the enduring questions explored in studying
 Internal colonialism: The dominant group forces the
cultural, political, and social change.
minority groups to do menial labor in society
Sources of Change - While there are several factors inducing  Segregation: Dominant groups impose a separation
this type of change, we will discuss its four crucial sources: of ethnic groups
innovation, diffusion, acculturation and assimilation, and
A protest is a collective behavior wherein people gather to
social contradictions and tensions.
publicly express their disapproval on specific economic,
Innovation - Innovation pertains to the development of an social, or political issues.
existing product or system. In studying cultural, political, and
Armed conflict and terrorism are the more extreme means of
social change, we look at two types of innovation:
forwarding an advocacy or expressing disapproval on
technological and social.
economic, social, or political issues. While both resort to a
Diffusion refers to how an innovation or idea is spread among show of force through acts of violence, armed conflicts and
the members of society through different means and terrorism have different characteristics.
channels. Sociologist Everett Rogers (1962) attributed how
Armed conflicts occur when there are perceived threats to
fast an idea or innovation spreads to four elements:
the people, frustrations over widespread social problems,
 The innovation or idea itself struggle for independence, overthrowing of governments,
 The channels of communication an idea goes and other perceived moral objectives.
through
Terrorism is commonly used as a political strategy by groups
 The type of social system or nature of social group
who wish to forward their group’s agenda. It bypasses
 The time or duration the social group is exposed to
government diplomatic channels for negotiation and
innovation
attempts to justify violence as a legitimate means for their
Acculturation - occurs when an individual (or group) adopts actions.
and adjusts to the new or dominant cultural environment
Ever-changing Society
upon continuous exposure or interaction. Here the direction
of the change is unidirectional. One of the common manifestations of social change is the
process of urbanization. As some regions of the country
Assimilation - occurs when individuals or groups from
become modernized, industrial city centers, people from the
different cultures interact and share their beliefs,
rural areas flock to the cities in search of employment
experiences, and values forming a combined, inter-cultural
opportunities and greener pastures.
environment and life. Unlike the former, assimilation is a two-
way process. For example, Manila has become a melting pot of different
cultures as people from various places and backgrounds
Class struggle pertains to tension and conflict among social
relocate to work and live in the city.
classes due to the unequal distribution of resources and
power.

Gender issues stem from the unequal distribution of

resources, opportunities, and power among individuals
belonging to different genders: men, women, lesbians, gays,
bisexuals, transgender people, and queers, among others.
 LESSON 18: WHAT ARE THE CHALLENGES AND RESPONSES
TO HUMAN ADAPTATION?
For one to be called a migrant, that person’s set of activities
Studying Populations - In the previous lessons, we have and connections must also be detached from one place and
discussed the dynamics of groups and societies including the transferred to the place the person will migrate to. An
institutions and practices that affect their inner workings. individual, a family, or even a whole community may migrate
together.
Demography - refers to the statistical study of human
populations: births, deaths, density, and geographical Internal migration refers to moving to another location in the
distribution. same country. On the other hand

Key concepts in demography international migration pertains to moving out of one

country into another country.
Fertility pertains to the production of offspring or
childbearing. This is different from fecundity which meant the out-migrant - from your place of origin
ability to bear offspring.
in-migrant - to your destination
Mortality investigates the factors causing death and the
emigrant - your country of origin
corresponding rates of deaths in the population.
immigrant - country of destination
Another related demographic term is life expectancy which is
the average lifespan of an individual affected by one’s birth Reasons For Migrating
year, age, and other factors such as social status and gender.
Push-pull theory is commonly used in exploring why people
Studying Populations - In the previous lessons, we have choose to leave and migrate to another location.
discussed the dynamics of groups and societies including the
institutions and practices that affect their inner workings. Push factors refer to the conditions such as oppressive laws,
high cost of living, and high-risk surroundings that “push”
Demography refers to the statistical study of human people out of a territory.
populations: births, deaths, density, and geographical
distribution. Pull factors or opportunities a location offers that “pull” a
migrant, lies in one’s innate nature of wanting to
Population Growth Theories - The foremost objective of the continuously better themselves materially and economically.
human population is to survive. Survival in this context also
involves having adequate resources to sustain members of Transnational migration occurs when migrants continue to
the family and community. Population growth back then was build and maintain networks and affiliations in their
not a problem as it became an opportunity to also increase homeland while also establishing roots and connections in
productivity in terms of farming and raising livestock which their new location.
benefited households and communities. Case: Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) - The Philippines is
Malthusian Theory - English economist Thomas Malthus was said to have a deeply entrenched culture of migration. Even
alarmed by this population boom and argued that this would within Filipino families, the children are constantly told by
lead to severe depletion of resources and social chaos. There their parents to find a job and migrate to another country to
were several critiques against Malthus’s theory. One is how have a better life. According to a report published by the
people started to rationalize the cost and benefits of having Migration Policy Institute (2017), more than 10 million
children with some choosing artificial birth control or Filipinos — roughly 10% of the population are either working
abstinence resulting in a drop in birth rates in Europe by or living abroad and the number continues to rise.
1850. Environment, Disaster, and the Human Population - Extreme
Demographic Transition Theory - The demographic transition climatic events are felt increasingly in the country over the
theory posits that the rise and fall of the human population last years. The Philippines, situated within the Pacific ring of
are anchored to the stage of society and the technological fire and typhoon belt, experiences disastrous tectonic and
advancement it is situated in. volcanic earthquakes and typhoons of the new millennium.
These leave the country with deaths and damages.
Migration - Migration is one of the important aspects of
studying populations. As the population grows, the ratio of
people to resources changes. Migration is defined as the
movement of people out of one territory and into another.
Environment and the human population - the term
environment is used widely and interchangeably with the
word nature with broad definitions, meanings, and
interpretations. Historically, English borrowed the term from
old French “to environ” which means to envelop, encircle, or
enclose.

Environmental Challenges - Population growth impacts the

environment. One of the contributions of humans to
environmental dilemmas is pollution. It is the introduction of
harmful materials or pollutants in an environment that is
either produced by human activity or naturally-occurring.
Some materials are useful to the human population.

The Impacts of Climate Change - Global warming is one of

the environmental challenges that cause the climate change
that we are experiencing now. Climate change, does not refer
to natural causes but human activities that contribute to
environmental problems.

Responding to Environmental Problems - Drastic changes in

the environment have affected human communities greatly
across the world. The interconnected problems of population
growth and environmental issues are overwhelming.
mitigation or reducing carbon emission and stabilizing the
levels of heat-trapping greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
and adaptation that involves learning how to live with
climate change.

Environment and the human population - The term

environment is used widely and interchangeably with the
word nature with broad definitions, meanings, and
interpretations. Historically, English borrowed the term from
old French “to environ” which means to envelop, encircle, or
enclose.