Chapter 3
Chapter 3
SOIL
CHAPTER 3
Learning outcome
At the end of this lecture, student should be able
to:
Define the concept of pressure head and
hydraulic gradient
Understand the definition of permeability and 1D flow of water through soil using Darcy Law
Determine the coefficient of permeability using
constant head and falling head test
Content
Definition of pressure head and hydraulic gradient
Permeability and 1-D flow of water through soil Darcy
Law
Determination of the coefficient of permeability
constant head, falling head
Field permeability test confined aquifer, unconfined
aquifer
Seepage and 2D-flow in isotropic and homogeneous
soil. Seepage calculation using flow net under concrete
Dam/sheet piles and through earth dam
INTRODUCTION
The study of the flow of water through permeable
soil media is important in soil mechanics
It is necessary for estimating the quantity of
underground seepage under various hydraulic
conditions
E.g. for investigating problems involving the
pumping of water for underground construction,
and for making stability analyses of earth dams
and earth retaining structures that are subject to
seepage forces
INTRODUCTION
Water is free to flow within a soil mass
In porous media, water will flow from the
zones of higher to lower pore pressure
When considering problems of water flow,
it is usual to express a pressure as a
pressure head or head, measured in
meter of water
Where
h = total head
u = pressure
v = velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity
w = unit weight of water
Z = vertical distance of a given point above or below datum
Figure 1: Pressure, elevation and total heads for flow of water through soil
COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
Permeability (hydraulic conductivity) the
capacity of a soil to allow water to pass
through it
Hydraulic conductivity is generally
expressed in cm/sec or m/sec
COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
The value k is used as a measure of the resistance to
flow offered by soil, and affected by several factor:
i/ the porosity of the soil
ii/ the particle size distribution
iii/ the shape and orientation of soil particles
iv/ the degree of saturation/presence of air
v/ the type of cation and thickness of adsorbed layers
associated with clay minerals (if present)
vi/ the viscosity of the soil water, which varies with
temperature
COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
Hydraulic conductivity (k) varies widely for different soils
The hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils is lower
and increases rapidly with the degree of saturation
Soil type
k (cm/sec)
k (ft/min)
Clean gravel
100-1.0
200-2.0
Coarse sand
1.0-0.01
2.0-0.02
Fine sand
0.01-0.001
0.02-0.002
Silty clay
0.001-0.00001 0.002-0.00002
Clay
<0.000001
<0.000002
Darcys Law
In 1856, Darcy published a simple equation for
the discharge velocity of water through saturated
soils
v = ki
Darcys Law
This equation is on observation about the
flow of water through clean sands
Valid for laminar flow conditions and
applicable for a wide range of soils
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
The value of the coefficient of permeability
will be affected by changes in temperature
It may be shown theoretically that for a
laminar flow condition in a saturated soil
mass:
k w
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
A correction for the effect of temperature , may
be obtained as follows:
kt = kt k20
Where
kt = value k corresponding to a
temperature of t
k20 = value of k corresponding to a
temperature of 20C
kt = temperature correction coefficient
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS
Coefficient of permeability (k) can be measured
using field tests or tests conducted in the
laboratory
The aim to produce similar results as using field
tests
In laboratory, errors may occur due to:
i/ the presence of air bubbles in the water
ii/ Variations in sample density and porosity
iii/ variations in temperature and viscosity of
water
2 test constant head test and falling head test
Where
i=h
L
Example 1
During a test using a constant-head permeameter, the following data
were collected. Determine the average value k
Diameter of sample = 100mm
Temperature of water = 17
Distance between manometer tapping points =150mm
Quantity collected in 2 min. (ml)
541
503
509
474
76
72
68
65
Solution
Solution
Example 2
With the aid of sketch, derive the formula
for the permeability of a soil using a
constant head apparatus
Solution
By applying Darcys equation
q = kAi
k = q/Ai but q = Q/t,
k = 1/A x Q/t x L/H
k = QL/Ath (mm/s)
i = h/L
Where,
q = flow rate (mm3/s)
Q = quantity collected in time (s) = Q (ml) x 10 3 (mm3)
A = cross sectional area (mm 2)
H = different in manometer levels (mm)
L = distance between manometer tapping points (mm)
Procedure
The test is conducted by filling the
standpipe with de-aired water and allowing
seepage to take place through the sample
The height of water in the standpipe is
recorded at several time intervals
Test repeated using standpipes of
different diameter
Where
Procedure
Specimen 100mm diameter undisturbed
sample
Specimens can also be prepared by compaction
in a standard mould
A wire mesh and gravel filter is provided at the
top and bottom of the sample
The base of the cylinder is stood in a water
reservoir fitted with a constant-level overflow and
the top connected to a glass standpipe of known
diameter
Example 3
During a test using falling-head
permeameter, the following data were
recorded. Determine the average value of
k.
Diameter of sample = 100mm
Length of sample = 150mm
Recorded data
Standpipe
diameter (mm)
5.00
9.00
12.50
Final, h2
Time interval
(s)
1200
800
82
800
400
149
1200
900
177
900
700
169
700
400
368
1200
800
485
800
400
908
Solution
Cross sectional area of sample, A = 1002 x
4
Cross sectional area of standpipe a = d2 x
4
k = 2.303 aL log10 h1
At
h2
Solution
Recorded data
Standpip
e
diameter
(mm)
Initial, h1
5.00
1200
800
82
0.1761
1.854
800
400
149
0.3010
1.744
1200
900
177
0.1249
1.975
900
700
169
0.1091
1.807
700
400
368
0.2430
1.847
1200
800
485
0.1761
1.959
800
400
908
0.3010
1.789
9.00
12.50
Level in standpipe
(mm)
Computed
Time interval
(s)
log10 h1
h2
k (mm/s)
x 10-3
Final, h2
Exercise
Question 1
The following data were recorded
during a constant-head
permeability test:
Internal diameter = 75 mm
Head lost over a sample length of 180 mm
= 247 mm
Quantity of water collected in 60 s = 626 ml
Calculate the coefficient of permeability for
the soil
Question 2
In a falling-head permeability test
the following data were recorded:
Internal diameter of permeameter = 75.2
mm
Length of sample = 122.0 mm
Internal diameter of standpipe = 6.25 mm
Initial level in standpipe = 750.0 mm
Level in standpipe after 15 min = 247.0 mm
Calculate the permeability of the soil
Learning outcome
At the end of this lecture, student should
be able to:
Determine the coefficient of permeability
for field permeability test confined
aquifer and unconfined aquifer
Example 4
A permeability pumping test was carried
out from a well sunk into a confined
stratum of dense sand. The arrangement
of pumping well and observation wells are
shown below. When a steady state was
achieved at a pumping rate of 37.4m 3/hr,
the following drawdown were observed:
pumping well:
d = 4.46m
observation well 1: d = 0.42m
observation well 2: d = 1.15m
a) Calculate a value for the coefficient of
permeability of the sand using the observation
well data
b) Estimate the radius of influence at this pumping
rate
Solution
a) Observation well data: r1 = 50m r2 = 15m
ho = 11.7 + 7.4 2.5 = 16.6m
h1 = 16.6 0.42 = 16.18m
h2 = 16.6 1.15 = 15.45m
q = 37.4 / 3600 = 10.39 x 10-3 m3/s
k = q log10 (r1/r2)
2.727 H (h1-h2)
= (10.39 x 10-3 ) log 10 (50/15)
2.727 x 11.7 x (16.18 15.45)
= 2.33 x 10-4 m/s
H = 11.7m
(b) No drawdown
Then, putting r1 =50m and h1 = 16.18m
k = q log10 (ro/r1)
2.727 H (ho-h1)
Log10 (ro/50) = 2.33 x 10-4 x 2.727 x 11.7
16.6 16.18
10.39 x 10 -3
ro = 100m
Example 5
A permeability test was carried out from well
sunk through a surface layer of medium dense
sand. Initially, the water table was located at a
depth of 2.5m. When a steady state was
achieved at a pumping rate of 23.4m 3/hr, the
following draw-downs were observed
Pumping well:
Observation well 1:
Observation well 2:
d = 3.64m
d = 0.48m
d = 0.96m
Solution
(a) Observation data :
r1 = 62m
r2 = 18m
ho = 12 2.5 = 9.5m
h1 = 9.5 0.48 = 9.02m
h2 = 9.5 0.96 = 8.54m
q = 23.4/3600 = 6.5 x 10-3 m3/s
k = 2.303q log10 (r1/r2)
(h12-h22)
= 3.04 x 10-4 m/s
Exercise
Question 1
For a field pumping test a well was sunk through a horizontal layer of a sand which
proved to be 14.4 m thick and to be underlain by a stratum of clay. Two observation
wells were sunk, respectively 18 m and 64 m from the pumping well. The water table
was initially 2.2 m below the ground level. At a steady state pumping-rate of 328
litres/min, the drawdowns in the observation wells were found to be 1.92 and 1.16 m
respectively. Calculate the coefficient of permeability of the sand.
Question 2
A horizontal layer of sand of 6.0 m thickness is overlain by a layer of clay with a
horizontal surface thickness of 4.8 m. An impermeable layer underlies the sand. In
order to carry out a pumping test, a well was sunk to the bottom of the sand and two
observation wells were sunk through clay just into the sand at distances 12 m and 40
m from the pumping well. At a steady pump rate of 600 litres/min., the water levels in
the observation wells were reduced by 2.28 m and 1.79 m respectively. Calculate the
coefficient of permeability of the sand if the initial piezometric surface level lies 1.0 m
below the ground surface.
Flow Net
A flownet is a graphical representation of a flow field that satisfies
Laplaces equation and comprises a family of flow lines and
equipotential lines
Flow line - a line along which a
water particle will travel from
upstream to the downstream side
in the permeable soil medium
Equipotential line - a line along
which the potential head at all
points is equal
Seepage Calculation
In any flow net, the strip between any two adjacent
flow lines is called a flow channel.
Let h1, h2, h3, h4,hn be the piezometric levels
corresponding to the equipotential lines
The rate of seepage through the flow channel per
unit length (perpendicular to the vertical section
through the permeable layer) can be calculated as
follows
q1=q2=q3=..=qn
Or
Where H =head difference between the
upstream and downstream sides
Nd = number of potential drop
Nf = number of flow channels in flow net
n = b1/l1=b2/l2=b3/l3==n
elements are not square)
(i.e.
the
EXAMPLE
ANSWER
SUMMARY
In this chapter, weve discussed Darcys Law, definition of hydraulic
conductivity, laboratory and field determination of hydraulic conductivity
The accuracy of the values of k determined in the laboratory depends on
several factor
- Temperature of the fluid
- Viscosity of the fluid
- Trapped air bubbles present in the soil specimen
- Degree of saturation of the soil specimen
- Migration of fines during testing
- Duplication of field conditions in the laboratory
The actual value of the hydraulic conductivity in the field may also be somewhat
different than that obtained in the laboratory because of the nonhomogeneity of
the soil
Hence, proper care should be taken in assessing the order of the magnitude of
k for all design consideration.