1

Electronic Instrumentation
Experiment 6 -- Digital Switching
 Part A: Transistor Switches
 Part B: Comparators and Schmitt Triggers
 Part C: Digital Switching
 Part D: Switching a Relay
Part A: Transistors
 Analog Circuits vs. Digital Circuits
 Bipolar Junction Transistors
 Transistor Characteristics
 Using Transistors as Switches

2
 Analog Circuits vs. Digital Circuits
 An analog signal is an
electric signal whose
value varies
continuously over time.

 A digital signal can take

on only finite values as
the input varies over
time.

3
• A binary signal, the most common digital signal, is a signal
that can take only one of two discrete values and is
therefore characterized by transitions between two states.

• In binary arithmetic, the two discrete values f1 and f0 are

represented by the numbers 1 and 0, respectively.

4
• In binary voltage waveforms, these values are represented
by two voltage levels.
• In TTL convention, these values are nominally 5V and
0V, respectively.
• Note that in a binary waveform, knowledge of the
transition between one state and another is equivalent to
knowledge of the state. Thus, digital logic circuits can
operate by detecting transitions between voltage levels.
The transitions are called edges and can be positive (f0 to
f1) or negative (f1 to f0).

1 positive negative positive

edge edges edge
0

5
 Bipolar Junction Transistors
 The bipolar junction transistor
(BJT) is the salient invention
that led to the electronic age,
integrated circuits, and
ultimately the entire digital
world. The transistor is the
principal active device in
electrical circuits.

 When inputs are kept relatively small, the transistor serves as

an amplifier. When the transistor is overdriven, it acts as a
switch, a mode most useful in digital electronics.

6
 There are two types of B
BJTs, npn and pnp,
and the three layers npn
are called collector transistor
(C), base (B), and
emitter (E). E
C
 All current
directions are
reversed from
the npn-type to
the pnp-type.

 A BJT consists of three adjacent regions of doped silicon, each

of which is connected to an external lead. The base, a very
thin slice of one type, is sandwiched by the complementary
pair of the other type, hence the name bipolar.
7
 FET, Field Effect Transistors, are another type of
transistor. They are the basis of most logic,
memory and microprocessor chips.

 Applying a gate voltage that exceeds the threshold

voltage opens up the channel between the source and the
drain
 This is from an excellent collection of java applets at
SUNY Buffalo http://jas.eng.buffalo.edu/
8
 Note: The npn-type is the more
pnp and npn transistors popular; it is faster and costs less.

VC VCE > 0 VC
VCE < 0
VBE < 0 VBE > 0
IC IC

IB IB
- +
VB VB VCE
-VCE +
- -
+ VBE -
-VBE +
IE
IE
pnp BJT VE
npn BJT
VE VCE  VC  VE
Apply voltage LOW
to base to turn ON VBE  VB  VE Apply voltage HIGH
to base to turn ON
I E  IC  I B
9
Characteristics of Transistors
 Cutoff Region
• Not enough voltage at B for the diode to turn on.
• No current flows from C to E and the voltage at C is Vcc.
 Saturation Region
• The voltage at B exceeds 0.7 volts, the diode turns on and the
maximum amount of current flows from C to E.
• The voltage drop from C to E in this region is about 0.2V but we
often assume it is zero in this class.
 Active Region
• As voltage at B increases, the diode begins to turn on and small
amounts of current start to flow through into the doped region. A
larger current proportional to IB, flows from C to E.
• As the diode goes from the cutoff region to the saturation region,
the voltage from C to E gradually decreases from Vcc to 0.2V.

IC  I B 10    1000
10
 Diode Model of the npn BJT
 The diode is controlled by the
voltage at B.

 When the diode is completely on, the

switch is closed. This is the
saturation region.

 When the diode is completely off,

the switch is open. This is the cutoff
region.

 When the diode is in between we are

in the active region.
11
npn Common Emitter Characteristics

IC = βIB
VBE = 0.7 V
IC

IE
IC 
 
IB 1  
0.9    0.999
10    1000

VBE < 0.6 V

12
Switch Model of the npn BJT
Controls Circuit that is
Switch
transistor switched

Remove the part of the circuit that controls the switch and
consider two possible cases:

13
Using the transistor as a switch

Bulb off Bulb on

14
Building logic gates with transistors
Input Output
0 1
1 0

15
Part B: Comparators and Schmitt Triggers

 Op-Amp Comparators
 Model of a Schmitt Trigger

16
Comparators and Schmitt Triggers
• In this section we will use op-amps to
create binary signals.
• Comparators are the simplest way to
create a binary signal with an op-amp.
They take advantage of the very high
gain of the chip to force it to saturate
either high (VS+) or low (VS-) creating
two (binary) states.
• Schmitt Triggers are a modified version
of a comparator which uses a voltage
divider to improve the performance of
the comparator in the presence of noise.

17
 Op-Amp Comparators
• The prototype of op-amp switching circuits is the
op-amp comparator.
• The circuit does not employ feedback.

Vout  A  V   V  

18
• Because of the large gain that characterizes open-
loop performance of the op-amp (A > 105), any
small difference between the input voltages will
cause large outputs; the op-amp will go into
saturation at either extreme, according the voltage
supply values and the polarity of the voltage
difference.
• One can take advantage of this property to
generate switching waveforms.
• Consider the following.
Non-inverting Op-Amp Comparator
  V cos  t 

19
• The comparator is perhaps the simplest form of an
analog-to-digital converter, i.e., a circuit that
converts a continuous waveform to discrete values.
The comparator output consists of only two
discrete levels.
Input and Output of Non-Inverting Comparator

Vsat = ± 13.5 volts

V = 1 volt

20
• It is possible to construct an inverting comparator
by connecting the non-inverting terminal to ground
and connecting the input to the inverting terminal.
Input and Output of Inverting Comparator

21
• Comparator with Offset
• A simple modification of the comparator circuit
consists of connecting a fixed reference voltage
to one of the input terminals; the effect of the
reference voltage is to raise or lower the voltage
level at which the comparator will switch from
one extreme to the other.

22
• Below is the waveform of a comparator with a reference
voltage of 0.6 V and an input voltage of sin(ωt).

• Note that the comparator output is no longer a symmetric

square wave.

23
• Another useful interpretation of the op-amp
comparator can be obtained by considering its
input-output transfer characteristic.

Non-Inverting Zero-Reference
(no offset) Comparator
often called a
zero-crossing comparator

24
• Shown below is the transfer characteristic for a
comparator of the inverting type with a nonzero
reference voltage.

25
 Comparator Response to Noisy Inputs

Note how the output swings between high and low.

26
 Schmitt Trigger Model
• One very effective way of
improving the performance of
the comparator is by
introducing positive feedback.
Positive feedback can increase
the switching speed of the
comparator and provide noise
immunity at the same time.
• The voltage range over which
the signal does not switch is
called the hysteresis (In this
case, h=2d) Can you explain how this works?

27
• In effect, the Schmitt trigger provides a noise
rejection range equal to ± Vsat [R2 / (R2 + R1)]
within which the comparator cannot switch.
• Thus if the noise amplitude is contained within this
range, the Schmitt trigger will prevent multiple
triggering.

28
• If it is desired to switch about a voltage other than
zero, a reference voltage can also be connected to
the non-inverting terminal. In this case, d+ is not
equal to d-, and the hysteresis is given by h=d+ + d-
Switching levels for the Schmitt Trigger are:

R2 R1
Vin  Vsat  Vref
R 2  R1 R 2  R1
positive-going transition

R2 R1
Vin   Vsat  Vref
R 2  R1 R 2  R1
negative-going transition

29
How to determine switching levels
vout  vref  vR 2  vR1 v   vref  vR 2

vR1 
R1
vout  vref 
R1  R 2
vR 2 
R2
vout  vref 
R1  R 2
We are always comparing the input to the voltage at v+
vR 2 
R2
 Vsat  vref  v  vref 
 R2
 Vsat  vref 
R1  R 2 R1  R 2
Example: If vref=1V and Vsat=15V or -15V, then
R2 R2
Vsat  15V  v   1V  (15  1)  vin  1V  14
R1  R 2 R1  R 2
R2 R2
Vsat  15V  v   1V  (15  1)  vin  1V  16
R1  R 2 R1  R 230
Part C: Digital Switching

 Digital Chips
 Inverting Digital Chips
 Simulating Noise
 Using Inverters to control a transistor

31
Digital Chips

 Digital Chips generally have 14 or 16 pins

 Digital Chips typically have many gates in a
single chip
 The upper right hand corner must be tied to
the source voltage (5V)
 The lower left hand corner must be grounded. 32
Inverting Digital Chips

 The Schmitt trigger inverter chip is a digital

chip that converts analog to digital signals.
 The inverter inverts a digital signal. It operates
much like an inverting comparator.
 The operating range of both chips is 0V to 5V
 They both output either HIGH or LOW.
33
Simulating Noise
U1A
1 2 Two voltage
7404 R1V
1k sources together
V
1
U2A
2
0
can be used to
VOFF = 1.5
V3
7414
R2
V simulate a signal
1k
VAMPL = 1.5
FREQ = 1k
0
with noise in
VOFF = 0
VAMPL = 0.2
V2
PSpice.
FREQ = 100k

4.0V

2.0V

0V
0s 100us 200us 300us 400us 500us 600us
V(U1A:A)
Time 34
 Using Inverters to control a Transistor
R5 1k

U4A R6 Q2 V
1 2 R4

7414 Q2N2222 1k
1k

V2
5v
V1
V 0 R2 1k

0
0 U3A R3 Q1 V
1 2
R1
7404 Q2N2222
1k 1k

0
Two identical circuits in parallel.
One uses a Schmitt trigger inverter and the other an inverter.
(If you copy and paste, components cannot have identical names.)
35
Part D: Switching a Relay

 Relays
 Relay Switching Circuit

36
 Relays

 Relays are electromechanical switches

 Relays contain an electromagnet
• NO: Current on  switch is pulled towards inductor
• NC: Current off  switch returns to normal position
 A relay looks like a black box with 5 connections
37
 Relay Circuit
30

DC voltage source is used to control a Schmitt trigger.

Schmitt trigger switches a transistor.
Transistor switches relay. It clicks.
Observe output at indicated points.
Then swap in an inverter and listen to the difference. 38