Superposition Theorem

Network Theorems
Topics Covered
Superposition Theorem
Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenizing a Circuit with Two Voltage Sources
Thevenizing a Bridge Circuit
10-5: Norton’s Theorem
1
Topics Covered
• Thevenin-Norton Conversions
• Conversion of Voltage and Current Sources
• Millman’s Theorem
• T or Y and π or Δ Conversions
2
McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
– The superposition theorem extends the use of
Ohm’s Law to circuits with multiple sources.
– In order to apply the superposition theorem to a

network, certain conditions must be met:
1. All the components must be linear, meaning that the

current is proportional to the applied voltage.
3
2. All the components must be bilateral, meaning that
the current is the same amount for opposite polarities
of the source voltage.
3. Passive components may be used. These are

components such as resistors, capacitors, and
inductors, that do not amplify or rectify.
4. Active components may not be used. Active

components include transistors, semiconductor
diodes, and electron tubes. Such components are
never bilateral and seldom linear.
4
– In a linear, bilateral network that has more than
one source, the current or voltage in any part of
the network can be found by adding algebraically
the effect of each source separately.
– This analysis is done by:

• shorting each voltage source in turn.
• opening each current source in turn.
5
Fig. 10-1: Superposition theorem applied to a voltage divider with two sources V1 and V2. (a)
Actual circuit with +13 V from point P to chassis ground. (b) V1 alone producing +16 V at P. (c)
V2 alone producing −3 V at P.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
6
R1 R2
15 V 100  20  13 V
V1 10  R3 V2
R1 R2
15 V 100  20 
V2 shorted
V1 10  R3
REQ = 106.7 , IT = 0.141 A and IR = 0.094 A

3
7
Superposition Theorem (Applied)
R1 R2
15 V 100  20  13 V
V1 10  R3 V2
R1 R2
100  20  13 V
V1 shorted V2
10  R3
REQ = 29.09 , IT = 0.447 A and IR = 0.406 A 8

3
Superposition Theorem (Applied)
R1 R2
15 V 100  20  13 V
V1 V2
0.094 A 0.406 A
With V2 shorted
REQ = 106.7 , IT = 0.141 A and IR = 0.094 A
3
With V1 shorted
REQ = 29.09 , IT = 0.447 A and IR = 0.406 A
3
Adding the currents gives IR = 0.5 A

3 9
Superposition Method (Check)
R1 R2
15 V 100  20  13 V
V1 10  R3 V2
0.5 A
With 0.5 A flowing in R3, the voltage across R3 must

be 5 V (Ohm’s Law). The voltage across R 1 must
therefore be 10 volts (KVL) and the voltage across R 2
must be 8 volts (KVL). Solving for the currents in R 1
and R2 will verify that the solution agrees with KCL.
IR1 = 0.1 A and IR2 = 0.4 A
IR3 = 0.1 A + 0.4 A = 0.5 A 10

– Thevenin’s theorem simplifies the process of
solving for the unknown values of voltage and
current in a network by reducing the network to
an equivalent series circuit connected to any pair
of network terminals.
– Any network with two open terminals can be

replaced by a single voltage source (VTH) and a
series resistance (RTH) connected to the open
terminals. A component can be removed to
produce the open terminals.
11
Fig. 10-3: Application of Thevenin’s theorem. (a) Actual circuit with terminals A and B across
RL. (b) Disconnect RL to find that VAB is 24V. (c) Short-circuit V to find that RAB is 2Ω.
12
Fig. 10-3 (d) Thevenin equivalent circuit. (e) Reconnect RL at terminals A and B to find that VL is
12V.
13
• Determining Thevenin Resistance and Voltage
– RTH is determined by shorting the voltage source
and calculating the circuit’s total resistance as
seen from open terminals A and B.
– VTH is determined by calculating the voltage
between open terminals A and B.
14
Note that R3 does not change the value of VAB

produced by the source V, but R3 does increase
the value of RTH.
Fig. 10-4: Thevenizing the circuit of Fig. 10-3 but with a 4-Ω R3 in series with the A terminal. (a)
VAB is still 24V. (b) Now the RAB is 2 + 4 = 6 Ω. (c) Thevenin equivalent circuit.
15
Thevenizing a Circuit
with Two Voltage Sources
• The circuit in Figure 10-5 can b solved by
Kirchhoff’s laws, but Thevenin’s theorem can
be used to find the current I3 through the
middle resistance R3.
– Mark the terminals A and B across R3.
– Disconnect R3.
– To calculate VTH, find VAB across the open terminals
16
Thevenizing a Circuit
with Two Voltage Sources
Fig. 10-5: Thevenizing a circuit with two voltage sources V1 and V2. (a) Original circuit with
terminals A and B across the middle resistor R3. (b) Disconnect R3 to find that VAB is −33.6V. (c)
Short-circuit V1 and V2 to find that RAB is 2.4 Ω. (d) Thevenin equivalent with RL reconnected to
terminals A and B.
17
• A Wheatstone Bridge Can Be

Thevenized.
• Problem: Find the voltage
drop across RL.
• The bridge is unbalanced
and Thevenin’s theorem is
a good choice.
• RL will be removed in this
procedure making A and B
the Thevenin terminals.
Fig. 10-6: Thevenizing a bridge circuit. (a) Original circuit with terminals A and B across middle
resistor RL.
RAB = RTA + RTB = 2 + 2.4 = 4.4 Ω

VAB = −20 −(−12) = −8V
Fig. 10-6(b) Disconnect RL to find VAB of −8 V. (c) With source V short-circuited, RAB is 2 + 2.4 =
4.4 Ω.
19
Fig. 10-6(d) Thevenin equivalent with RL reconnected to terminals A and B.

20
Norton’s Theorem
– Norton’s theorem is used to simplify a network in
terms of currents instead of voltages.
– It reduces a network to a simple parallel circuit with a
current source (comparable to a voltage source).
– Norton’s theorem states that any network with two
terminals can be replaced by a single current source
and parallel resistance connected across the terminals.
• The two terminals are usually labeled something such as A
and B.
• The Norton current is usually labeled IN.
• The Norton resistance is usually labeled RN.
21
Norton’s Theorem
• Example of a Current Source
– The symbol for a current source is a circle
enclosing an arrow that indicates the direction of
current flow. The direction must be the same as
the current produced by the polarity of the
corresponding voltage source (which produces
electron flow from the negative terminal).
22
Norton’s Theorem
Fig. 10-7: General forms for a voltage source or current source connected to a load RL across
terminals A and B. (a) Voltage source V with series R. (b) Current source I with parallel R. (c)
Current source I with parallel conductance G.
23
Norton’s Theorem
• Example of a Current Source
– In this example, the current I is provided constant
with its rating regardless of what may be
connected across output terminals A and B. As
resistances are added, the current divides
according to the rules for parallel branches
(inversely to branch resistances but directly with
conductances).
– Note that unlike voltage sources, current sources
are killed by making them open.
24
Norton’s Theorem
• Determining Norton Current and Voltage
– IN is determined by calculating the current through
a short placed across terminals A and B.
– RN is determined by shorting the voltage source

and calculating the circuit’s total resistance as
seen from open terminals A and B (same
procedure as for RTH).
25
Norton’s Theorem
• A Wheatstone Bridge Can Be Nortonized.
Fig. 10-9: Same circuit as in Fig. 10-3, but solved by Norton’s theorem. (a) Original circuit. (b)
Short circuit across terminals A and B.
26
Norton’s Theorem
• The Norton Equivalent Circuit
– Replace R2 with a short and determine IN.
– Apply the current divider.
– Apply KCL.
– RN = RTH.
– The current source provides 12 A total flow,
regardless of what is connected across it. With no
load, all of the current will flow in RN. When shorted,
all of the current will flow in the short.
• Connect R2.
• Apply the current divider.
• Use Ohm’s Law.
27
Norton’s Theorem
Fig. 10-9(c) The short-circuit current IN is 36/3 = 12 A. (d) Open terminals A and B but short-
circuit V to find RAB is 2 Ω, the same as RTH.
28
Norton’s Theorem
IL = IN x RN/RN + RL = 12 x 2/4 = 6 A
Fig. 10-9(e) Norton equivalent circuit. (f) RL reconnected to terminals A and B to find that IL is 6A.
29
Thevenin-Norton Conversions
• Thevenin’s theorem says that any network can

be represented by a voltage source and series
resistance.
• Norton’s theorem says that the same network
can be represented by a current source and
shunt resistance.
• Therefore, it is possible to convert directly from a
Thevenin form to a Norton form and vice versa.
• Thevenin-Norton conversions are often useful.
30
Thevenin Norton
Fig. 10-11: Thevenin equivalent circuit in (a) corresponds to the Norton equivalent in (b).
31
Fig. 10-12: Example of Thevenin-Norton conversions. (a) Original circuit, the same as in Figs.
10-3a and 10-9a. (b) Thevenin equivalent. (c) Norton equivalent.
32
Conversion of Voltage
and Current Sources
– Converting voltage and current sources can
simplify circuits, especially those with multiple
sources.
– Current sources are easier for parallel

connections, where currents can be added or
divided.
– Voltage sources are easier for series connections,

where voltages can be added or divided.
33
and Current Sources
• Norton conversion is a specific example of the general
principle that any voltage source with its series
resistance can be converted to an equivalent current
source with the same resistance in parallel.
• Conversion of voltage and current sources can often
simplify circuits, especially those with two or more
sources.
• Current sources are easier for parallel connections,
where currents can be added or divided.
• Voltage sources are easier for series connections,
where voltages can be added or divided.
34
and Current Sources
Fig. 10-14: Converting two voltage sources in V1 and V2 in

parallel branches to current sources I1 and I2 that can be
combined. (a) Original circuit. (b) V1 and V2 converted to
parallel current sources I1 and I2. (c) Equivalent circuit with
one combined current source IT.
35
and Current Sources
Fig. 10-15: Converting two current sources I1 and I2 in series to voltage sources V1 and V2 that
can be combined. (a) Original circuit. (b) I1 and I2 converted to series voltage sources V1 and V2.
(c) Equivalent circuit with one combined voltage source VT.
36
Millman’s Theorem
– Millman’s theorem provides a shortcut for finding the
common voltage across any number of parallel
branches with different voltage sources.
– The theorem states that the common voltage across
parallel branches with different voltage sources can
be determined by:V1 V2 V3
 
R1 R2 R3
VXY   etc
1 1 1
 
R1 R2 R3
– This formula converts the voltage sources to current
sources and combines the results.
37
Millman’s Theorem
84/12  0/6  21/3 7  0   7

VXY = =
1/12  1/6  1/3 7/12
14 12
= =  14 
7/12 7
VXY =  24 V = V3
Fig. 10-17: The same circuit as in Fig. 9-4 for Kirchhoff’s laws, but shown with parallel branches
to calculate VXY by Millman’s theorem.
38
T or Y and π or Δ Conversions
– Circuits are sometimes called different names

according to their shapes.
– This circuit is the same circuit in both diagrams. The
one on the left is a T (tee) network; the one on the
right is a Y (wye) network.
Fig. 10-19: The form of a T or Y network.

39
– Both of the following networks are the same; the one

on the left is called a pi (π), and the one on the right is
called a delta (Δ), because the forms resemble those
Greek characters.
Fig. 10-20: The form of a π or Δ network.

40
– The Y and Δ forms are different ways to connect
three resistors in a passive network.
– When analyzing such networks, it is often useful

to convert a Δ to a Y or vice-versa.
41
• Delta-to-Wye Conversion
– A delta (Δ) circuit can be converted to a wye (Y)
equivalent circuit by applying Kirchhoff’s laws:
R BR C
R1  RA
RA  RB  RC
R CR A
R2  R2 R3
RA  RB  RC
RC RB
R1
R AR B
R3 
RA  RB  RC
– This approach also converts a T to a π network.
42
• Wye-to-delta Conversion
– A wye (Y) circuit can be converted to a delta (Δ)
equivalent circuit by applying Kirchhoff’s laws:
R R  R 2R 3  R 1R 3 RA
RA  1 2
R1
R R  R 2R 3  R 1R 3 R2 R3
RB  1 2 RC RB
R2 R1
R 1R 2  R 2R 3  R 1R 3
RC 
R3
43
Useful aid in using formulas:

• Place the Y inside the Δ.
• Note the Δ has three closed
sides and the Y has three
open arms.
• Note how resistors can be
considered opposite each
other in the two networks.
• Each resistor in an open arm
has two adjacent resistors in
the closed sides.
Fig. 10-21: Conversion between Y and Δ networks.
• In the formulas for the Y-to-Δ conversion, each side of
the delta is found by first taking all possible cross
products of the arms of the wye, using two arms at a
time. (There are three such cross products.)
• The sum of the three cross products is then divided by
the opposite arm to find the value of each side of the
delta.
• Note that the numerator remains the same, the sum of
the three cross products.
• Each side of the delta is calculated by dividing this sum
by the opposite arm.
45
• For the Δ-to-Y conversion, each arm of the wye is
found by taking the product of the two adjacent
sides in the delta and dividing by the sum of the
three sides of the delta.
• The product of the two adjacent resistors
excludes the opposite resistor.
• The denominator for the sum of the three sides
remains the same in the three formulas.
• Each arm is calculated by dividing the sum into
each cross product.
46
A Wheatstone Bridge Can Be Simplified.
The total current IT from the battery is desired. Therefore, total

resistance RT must be found.
Fig. 10-22: Solving a bridge circuit by Δ-to-Y conversion. (a) Original circuit. (b) How the Y of
R1R2R3 corresponds to the Δ of RARBRC.
47
RT = R + R1 = 2.5 + 2 = 4.5 Ω
Fig. 10-22 (c) The Y substituted for the Δ network. The result is a series-parallel circuit with
the same RT as the original bridge circuit. (d) RT is 4.5Ω between points P3 and P4.
48

Superposition Theorem

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Network Theorems

– In order to apply the superposition theorem to a

1. All the components must be linear, meaning that the

3. Passive components may be used. These are

4. Active components may not be used. Active

– This analysis is done by:

REQ = 106.7 , IT = 0.141 A and IR = 0.094 A

REQ = 29.09 , IT = 0.447 A and IR = 0.406 A 8

Adding the currents gives IR = 0.5 A

With 0.5 A flowing in R3, the voltage across R3 must

IR3 = 0.1 A + 0.4 A = 0.5 A 10

– Any network with two open terminals can be

Note that R3 does not change the value of VAB

• A Wheatstone Bridge Can Be

RAB = RTA + RTB = 2 + 2.4 = 4.4 Ω

Fig. 10-6(d) Thevenin equivalent with RL reconnected to terminals A and B.

– RN is determined by shorting the voltage source

• Thevenin’s theorem says that any network can

– Current sources are easier for parallel

– Voltage sources are easier for series connections,

Fig. 10-14: Converting two voltage sources in V1 and V2 in

84/12  0/6  21/3 7  0   7

– Circuits are sometimes called different names

Fig. 10-19: The form of a T or Y network.

– Both of the following networks are the same; the one

Fig. 10-20: The form of a π or Δ network.

– When analyzing such networks, it is often useful

Useful aid in using formulas:

The total current IT from the battery is desired. Therefore, total

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