Chapter 2

Preliminary Engine Design

By Fikru T.
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter completion the students should know ;
Best type to meet these requirements:
 Diesel vs spark-ignition
 Two – vs 4-Cycle,
 Supercharged vs naturally aspirated,
 Number and arrangement of cylinders

Estimated cost of development

Estimated time of development
Estimated manufacturing cost
 Determination of
 Cylinder Number,
 Dimensions, and
 Arrangement (Choice of Piston Speed, Fuel Economy
Estimates, Indicated Mean effective pressure)
 Diesel Versus Spark Ignition?
• It decided by the type of fuel to be used.
• Diesel engine as an alternative to a spark-ignition engine is
fuel economy and fuel cost.
• The economic value of low fuel consumption and low fuel cost
depends heavily on the use factor.
• Low use factors tend toward spark-ignition engines, while the
Diesel engine tends to be preferred where the use factor is
high.
• Practically all engines used for personal service, that is, for
noncommercial vehicles, small motorboats, lawn mowers, etc.,
use spark ignition.
 Cont.…
• Noise, difficult cold starting, and emissions are also
handicaps in diesel engine.
• The final decision should be based on the advantages of
the Diesel engine in regard to fuel economy, balanced
against its disadvantages in weight, initial cost,
maintenance cost, and noise in operation.
• In some cases, notably in marine service, the reduced fire
hazard with Diesel fuel may be the conclusive factor.
 Two –or 4-Cycle

• 2-cycle engines are majorly used in small spark-ignition

engines and medium to large Diesel.
• The small spark-ignition 2-cycle engine is generally used
for motorcycles, outboard motorboat engines and as a
light, portable engine for, chain saws, due to following
features:
1. Low first cost
2. Low use factor
3. Low weight/power ratio
 Cont.….
• Besides the ignition system there are only three moving
parts per cylinder:
 The piston,
 The crankshaft, and
 The connecting rod.

• The specific output is somewhat higher than from 4-stroke

type, so that cost and weight are basically lower for a
given power.
• But fuel economy is poorer by at least 25% on account of
wastage of carbureted mixture during scavenging.
• Therefor 2-cycle engine more attractive where the use
factor is low and fuel economy is not critical.
 Cont.….
• Disadvantages, in addition to poor fuel economy, are
irregular idling and light-load operation, and relatively high
oil consumption, especially when the lubricating oil is
mixed with the fuel.
• This feature also challenging aspect.

 The 4-cycle engine is much more appropriate on account of its better

idling and light load operation and its better fuel economy, achieved at
the expense of very small.
 Also, crankcase scavenging becomes less attractive structurally as the
number of cylinders is increased.
 Supercharged or naturally aspirated
 Naturally aspirated engine Supercharged
 Forced induction through a turbocharger or a
• Atmospheric pressure to push an air–fuel supercharge
mixture into the combustion chamber
 Advantages

 Easier to maintain and repair

 Lower development and production costs
 Increased reliability, partly due to fewer separate
parts
 More direct throttle response Less potential for
overheating
 Disadvantages
 Disadvantages
 Decreased efficiency  Mechanically driven by the engine.
 Increased power loss at higher elevation  lower adiabatic efficiency
(due to lower air pressure) compared to  increasing pumping losses.
forced induction engines  turbo lag
Number and Arrangement of Cylinders
• This choice will first of all depend on the power output required.
• For engines below 3 or 4 hp there are few circumstances that would
justify more than a single cylinder, partly because of the usual emphasis
on low first cost .
• As rated power increases, the advantages of small cylinders in regard to
size, weight, and improved engine balance, point toward increasing the
number of cylinders per engine.
• The choice of the number of cylinders to be used will be a compromise
between low specific weight and volume, tolerable vibration levels, costs
of manufacture and maintenance, life expectancy, and over-all shape of
the engine package.
• number of cylinders will be governed by bmep and power output
 Number and arrangement of cylinders

single-cylinder engine

• Engine has one cylinder and piston connected to the

crankshaft.
• It used on

 Motorcycles  Mopeds
 Auto rickshaws  Go-karts and
 Motor scooters,  Garden machinery.
Characteristic of Single-cylinder engines
• Simple and compact, and will often deliver the maximum
power possible within a given envelope.
• Cooling is simpler than with multiple cylinders
• It more flywheel than multi-cylinder engines, and the
rotating mass is relatively large, restricting acceleration
and sharp changes of speed.
• In the basic arrangement they are prone to vibration.
 Multi cylinder engine
• Engine has more than one cylinder and piston
connected to the crankshaft.
• Multi cylinder engine are preferred over single
cylinder engines due to reason
I. Give more power
II. Giving smooth torque output
III. Lighter flywheel
IV. Engine compactness
V. Easy balancing
 Arrangement of cylinders
• One of the most important factors in the choice of cylinder
arrangement is the appropriateness of the resultant shape of the
engine to the space available, including considerations of accessibility
for service and repairs.
• For example, cylinders located below the crankshaft are extremely
inappropriate for marine use and for automobiles. On the other
hand, radial and inverted-V engines have proved both appropriate
and accessible in aircraft.
• The following cylinder arrangement are used to give batter
performance of the engine.
 are
• They In-Line.
 V Engine.
 Opposed Cylinder Engine or flat Engine
 Radial Engine
 In-Line
 Cylinders are positioned in a straight line, one
behind the other along the length of the crankshaft.
 They can consist of 2 to 12 cylinders or possibly
more.
 In-line four-cylinder engines are very common for
automobile and other applications. Due to light
weight and compactness for the sake of mechanical
simplicity and easy maintenance.
 In this type arrangement reciprocating forces are
nearly balanced.
 Its greatest limitation when the cylinder greater
than 6:-have the problem of weight of the long
crankshaft needed for each cylinder to have its own
throw and crankshaft torsional vibration.
 V Engine
• Two banks of cylinders at an angle with each other along a
single crankshaft.
• The angle between the banks of cylinders can be anywhere
from 15°to 120°,with 60°-90° being common.
• V engines have even numbers of cylinders from 2 to 20 or
more.
• An inline 6-cylinder engine was comparable in size to a V12
with. the V12 being slightly wider.
• The V-type also provided higher torque at lower RPM.
• It more compact, rigid and runs more smoothly at high speeds.
• V8 :-have excellent balance and relative freedom from
vibrational problems. compactness, high specific output,
and reasonably low cost.
• V 2,4 & 6 have balance problems
• V12 is best for power out put greater than 300hp.
Opposed Cylinder
Engine.
• Two banks of cylinders opposite each other on a
single crankshaft (a V engine with a 180°V).
• These are common on small aircraft and some
automobiles with an even number of cylinders
from two to eight or more.
• Reciprocating parts perfectly balanced.
• Opposed-cylinder engines are most often used
where light weight and short length are
important, as in outboard marine engines,
motorcycles, rear engined automobiles, and light
airplanes.
• They are also appropriate for under the floor
installation in buses and trucks.
Estimated cost of development
What is Cost?
 Cost is a resource sacrificed or foregone to achieve a
specific objective or something given up in exchange.
 Usually measured in monetary units like dollars or birr
that must be paid to acquire goods and services

Estimated cost
 Developing an approximation of the costs of the resources
needed to complete project activities.
 Project managers must take cost estimates seriously if
they want to complete projects within budget constraints.
Cost estimating includes
• Identifying and considering various costing alternatives.
• For example, in most application areas, additional work
during a design phase is widely held to have the
potential for reducing the cost of the production phase.
• The cost estimating process must consider whether the
cost of the additional design work will offset the
expected savings.
Cost Estimating Inputs
 Work breakdown structure
 Identifies the project elements that will need resources and
thus is the primary input to resource planning.

 Resource requirements
 Description of what types of resources are required and in what
quantities for each element of the work breakdown structure.

 Resource rates
 The individual or group preparing the estimates must know the
unit rates (e.g., staff cost per hour, bulk material cost per cubic
yard) for each resource in order to calculate project costs.

 Activity duration estimates

 Project budget includes an allowance for the cost of
financing (i.e. interest charges).
 Historical information.
• Project files
• project may maintain records of previous project results that
are detailed enough to aid in developing cost estimates. In
some application areas, individual team members may
maintain such records.
• Project team knowledge—the individual members of the
project team may remember previous actuals or estimates.
Estimated time of development
• Estimated time of development of project involves assessing
the number of work periods likely to be needed to complete
each identified activity.
 The time for development will depend on
 The intensity of the effort, as measured by funds, personnel, and
equipment to be devoted to it;
 The experience of the personnel assigned to the work; and
 The degree in which the projected engine includes new and
untested features.

If the project is late to market by four months in a life cycle

of five years, it loses one third of its profit.
Inputs to Estimated time of development
 Activity list.
 all activities which will be performed on the project.
 Constraints.
 Constraints are factors that will limit the project management
team’s options.
 Assumptions.
 Assumptions are factors that, for planning purposes, will be
considered to be true, real, or certain.
 Assumptions generally involve a degree of risk and will
normally be an output of risk identification.
 Resource requirements.
 The duration of most activities will be significantly influenced
by the resources assigned to them.
 Historical information.
• what activities were actually required on previous,
similar projects should be considered in defining
project activities.
 Task Name Nov-Dec Jan-Feb March April May June

September

October
Weeks Weeks Weeks Weeks Weeks Weeks

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Literature Review

Proposal preparation
Comprehensive research
Assessment
Data Collection and
Analyzing
Modeling & Analysis
using software
Manufacturing
Testing
Documentation
Why Estimating Time and Cost Are Important

• To support good decisions.

• To schedule work.
• To determine how long the project should take and its cost.
• To determine whether the project is worth doing.
• To develop cash flow needs.
• To determine how well the project is progressing.
• To develop time-phased budgets and establish the project baseline.
 Estimate the Manufacturing Costs
• This cost depends not only on design details but also on the
rate and methods of production.
• Of course production costs include not only the actual labor
and materials but also the appropriate overhead charges.
• Therefor sum of all the expenditures for the inputs of the
system (i.e. purchased components, energy, raw materials,
etc.) and for disposal of the wastes produced by the
system.
 Elements of the Manufacturing Cost of a Product
Manufacturing Cost

Components Assembly Overhead

Equipment Indirect
Standard Custom Labor Support
and Tooling Allocation

Raw
• Overhead Costs (all other costs)
Processing Tooling
Material • Support Costs (material handling, quality assurance,
purchasing, shipping, receiving, facilities, etc.)
• Indirect Allocations (not directly linked to a particular
product but must be paid for to be in business)
Component Costs (parts of the product)
Parts purchased from supplier
Custom parts made in the manufacturer’s own
plant or by suppliers according to the
manufacturer’s design specifications
 Material Cost example

R.No Items Specification Unit Quantity unit price Total cost

1 Shaft Steel dia.60mm Berga 4 2500 10000
2 Shaft Steel dia.30mm Berga 4 1500 6000
3 Motor AC, 5kW Pics 2 13500 27000
4 Bearing Steel, ball, bore dia 30 Pics 5 80 400
5 RHS tube 30X30X 2.5 mm Pics 4 600 2400
Total cost 45800
 ENGINE PARAMETERS
• Average piston speed is: Crank offset a, stroke length S,
turning at an engine speed of N:
Average piston speed for all engines will
normally be in the range of 5 to 15 m/s.
Two reasons why engines operate in this range.

1st reasons
 Safe limit which can be tolerated by material strength of the engine components.
 If engines operated at higher speeds, there would be a danger of material failure in the
pistons and connecting rods as the piston is accelerated and decelerated during each
stroke.
 Automobile engines usually operate in a speed range of 500 to 7000 RPM, with
cruising at about 2000 RPM.
 Under certain conditions using special materials and design, high-performance
experimental engines have been operated with average piston speeds up to 25 m/sec.
 2nd reason
• Why maximum average piston speed is limited is because of
the gas flow into and out of the cylinders.
• Piston speed determines the instantaneous flow rate of air-
fuel into the cylinder during intake and exhaust flow out of the
cylinder during the exhaust stroke.
• Higher piston speeds would require larger valves to allow for
higher flow rates.
• In most engines, valves are at a maximum size with no room
for enlargement.
 Cont.…
The ratio of the bore to stroke d/s for small engines is usually from 0.8 to 1.2.
An engine with d = s is often called a square engine.
If stroke length is longer than bore diameter the engine is under square, and if
stroke length is less than bore diameter the engine is over square.
Very large engines are always under square, with stroke to bore ratios as high as
4:1.
S>d under square engine characteristics
 longer stroke allows for a smaller bore resulting in less surface area in the
combustion chamber and correspondingly less heat loss.
 This increases thermal efficiency within the combustion chamber.
 However, the longer stroke results in higher piston speed and higher friction
losses that reduce the output power which can be obtained off the crankshaft.

S<d Over square engine characteristics

 This decreases friction losses but increases heat transfer losses.
 Most modern automobile engines are near square, with some slightly over
square and some slightly under square.
 Cont…
• R = r/a
• R is the ratio of connecting rod length to crank offset and usually has
values of 3 to 4 for small engine, increased to 5 to 10 for the largest
engine.

Mean Effective Pressure

 MEP is a parameter used by engineers to describe the performance of I.C engine.
 It used t measure of an engine’s capacity to do work that is independent of
engine displacement.
 BMEP is a function of temperature of the gases in the cylinder.
 To increase the temperature you need to burn more fuel, thus making more heat.
 Torque is the function of BMEP and displacement volume only.
AIR RESISTANCE/Aerodynamic drag
• When a body travels within a dense medium (air), the molecules of the
medium collide with the moving object and thereby absorb some of the
energy.
• This is felt as a resistance to the moving object. If the medium is denser,
then the resistance is more.
• Also when the object moves at a faster speed, the resistance increases
proportionately.
Cont.…
AIR RESISTANCE
=

p- dynamic pressure
Pa- air resistance power
Cd- dimensionless drag coefficient.
frontal area of the vehicle
- vehicle speed relative to air
- air drag force
 AIR RESISTANCE
• The typical modern automobile achieves a drag coefficient of
between 0.30–0.35.
 ROLLING RESISTANCE
• The rolling resistance, Rr is due to deformation of road and tire and to
the dissipation of energy through impact.

• V in km/hr
• Experimentally widely accepted expression mean value of a and b
are 0.015 and 0.00016.
 ROLLING RESISTANCE
• The power required to overcome the rolling resistance when the
vehicle moves at speed of V

Pr  RrV
 The coefficient of rolling resistance increase when the speed increase
noticeably
 GRADIENT RESISTANCE
• For a vehicle climbing up a gradient , the component of its weight
parallel to the road surface acts as a resistance to its motion.
• If some energy is not supplied to overcome this backward force, then
the vehicle would slow down, stall and roll Gradient resistance:
backwards.
 If the vehicle is trading uphill at a slope of θ, then the weight of the
vehicle, W has two components: one perpendicular to the road
surface (with a value ) and the other along the road surface (with a
value ).
• The component along the road surface is the one that tries to restrict
the motion.
• Since θ is very small (40-50)
 Cont.…
The gradient resistance is given by:= mgsin
Power expenditure on ascent with gradient given by:
v=
Where:- m mass (total) of a
vehicle,
g is gravitational
acceleration
speed of vehicle
 Maximum Cruising Speed
• The maximum speed of a vehicle is defined as the constant cruising speed
that the vehicle can achieve with full power plant load on a flat road.
• The maximum speed of a vehicle is determined by the equilibrium
between the tractive effort of the vehicle and the resistance and
maximum speed of the power plant and gear ratios of the transmission.
• This equilibrium is:

√
𝑇 𝑒 𝐺𝑅𝑖 𝐺𝑅 𝑓𝑑 𝜂 𝑡
𝑇 𝑒 𝐺𝑅𝑖 𝐺𝑅 𝑓𝑑 𝜂 𝑡 −𝜇 𝑟 𝑚𝑔
− 𝜇𝑟 𝑚𝑔 𝑅𝑤
2 𝑅 𝑤 𝑉=
𝑉 = 1
1 𝜌 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 𝑓
𝜌 𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝑓 2
2
 Grade ability
• Grade ability is defined as the grade angle that the vehicle can negotiate at a
certain constant speed.
• For heavy commercial vehicles the grade ability is usually defined as the
maximum grade angle that the vehicle can overcome in the whole speed
range.
• When the vehicle is driving on a road with relatively small grade and constant
speed, the tractive effort and resistance equilibrium can be expressed as

𝐺𝑅𝑖 𝐺𝑅 𝑓𝑑 𝜂 𝑡 1 2
−𝜇 𝑟 𝑚𝑔 − 𝜌 𝐶 𝐷 𝐴 𝑓 𝑉
𝑅𝑤 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑀𝑔
)
Component parts of Power Train and Power Flow.

Engine Clutch Gearbox Propeller Final Axle Wheel

shaft drive shafts and tyre
 Cont.…
• The vehicle velocity (v) or the wheel velocity (vw) and the angular
velocity of the wheel (ωw)
 2π N
w  and 
GR i  GR fd 60
where, N is the engine speed in ' rpm' ,  is the engine angular velocity in ' rad/sec'.
 w is the wheel angular velocity in ' rad/sec'.

 2π  N
v  rw , v   rw  3.6
GR  GR 60  GR  GR
i fd i fd
is the vehicle velocity in ' km/h'.
However, the effective radius of radial tires Rw, is closer to their unloaded
radius Rg .
As a good estimate, for a non-radial tire, Rw ≈ 0.96Rg, and Rh ≈ 0.94Rg , while for
a radial tire, Rw ≈ 0.98Rg, and Rh ≈ 0.92Rg .
 Cont.…
• The Power (Pw), the Torque (Tw) and the Tractive Force or Effort (Ftr)
available at the driving wheels can be related as:
Cont.…
• The maximum Torque at the driving wheels (Tw-max) depends on: the
maximum engine brake torque (Tb_max), the Gear Ratios of the gearbox
(GRi) and the final drive (GRfd) and the efficiencies of the gearbox (Gi)
and the final drive (fd).
T  Tb _ max  GR i  GR fd  η Gi  η fd
w _ max

• The maximum Power available at the driving wheels (Pw-max) depends

on: the maximum engine brake power (Pb_max), the efficiencies of the
gearbox (Gi) and the final drive (fd).
P  Pb _ max  ηGi  ηfd Pw
w _ max ηt  ηGi  ηfd   Pw  Pb  η t
Pb
Fuel Economy Estimates
• The fuel economy of an automobile relates distance traveled by
a vehicle and the amount of fuel consumed.
• Consumption can be expressed in terms of volume of fuel to
travel a distance, or the distance travelled per unit volume of
fuel consumed.
• Since fuel consumption of vehicles is a significant factor in air
pollution.
• The energy in fuel is required to overcome various losses (wind
resistance, tire drag, and inertial, gradient, as well as engine and
drive line losses) encountered while propelling the vehicle, and
in providing power to vehicle systems such as ignition or air
conditioning.
Units of fuel per fixed distance
• Generally expressed as liters per 100 kilometers (L/100
km), used in most European countries, China, South Africa,
Australia and New Zealand
• Miles per gallon (mpg) is commonly used in the United
States, the United Kingdom, and Canada
• In Arab countries km/20 L, which is known as kilometers
per tanaka, where tanaka is a metal container which has a
volume of 20 liters.
How to calculate your Fuel Consumption (FC)

• The FC obtained will further be useful for instance,

for car’s owners to measure their vehicle FC against
the car’s manufacturer claim.
• Tips to improve FC are also shared in this brief
presentation.
 a) Definition Fuel Consumption
• (FC) is the measurement of fuel usage of a car over the
distance covered by that car or in short; The amount of
fuel used per distance.
• Do not confused Fuel Consumption (FC) with Fuel
Economy/Efficiency (FE), they are closely related but they
are not exactly the same thing.
METHODS OF CALCULATION
• Two basic methods of calculation (simple
mathematics to be honest) will be explained here and
will be done in unit of Liter per 100 km (L/100km).
• Conversion to other useful unit will be showed in the
later section.
 a) Rough Estimation
• For this method, 2 simple info is needed namely
• (i) the volume of gasoline you’ve spent/used over a specific
distance &
• (ii) the rough estimated distance your car covered in that particular
period.
Example 1
 A women traveled to her workplace with her sedan approximately 50km daily
(round trip). In that distance, her car used up to around 4.7 liters of gasoline. Her
FC in L/100km would be-
FC = 4.7 L / 50 km
= 4.7 x 2 L / 50 x 2 km
= 9.4 L / 100km @ 9.4 in L/100km
 b) Careful Calculation
• Route-based type of driving which is City Driving (uneven road surface &
a lot of braking/short stop) & Highway Driving (good road surface
condition & smooth driving) shall be determined.
 This will depend on your
I. Odometer &
II. Fuel Gauge You’ll need to carefully observe the movement of your fuel
indicator/gasoline usage
• Correspondingly you’ll have to note down your mileages from the point
you filled up your tank & until the moment it get back to the previous
fuel level.
Example 2
• Chong went to a gas station to fill up his car where he spent about RM
35 (for RM1.9 per litre of gas). At that time, his fuel indicator had only
just fall to one bar & his car mileage reading is 75100 km. After a few
days of driving his car fuel indicator dropped exactly to one bar of
gasoline again. At that particular time, his speedometer clocked
75280 km for his mileage. Note that Chong used federal road to his
workplace daily.
Example 3
First, RM35 of gasoline at RM1.9 per liter
Ga = 35 / 1.9
= 18.4 liter
Second, total distance;
Distance = 75280 - 75100 = 180 km
Hence, Chong’s Car FC; =18.4 L 180 km
= 10.2 L / 100 km
= 10.2 L / 100km @ 10.2 in L/100km for City Driving
 Example 3
• In a vacation to the North side of the country with his wife Mary, Daniel filled
up (once only) his car with a full-tank worth of gasoline (60 liter), right after
his fuel indicator blinks a warning for near empty tank. His car mileage is
35500 km the moment he filled up his tank & it clocked 36330 km when his
fuel indicator started to blink again when he reached his home.

• Example 4;Second, total distance;

• Distance = 36330 - 35500 = 830 km
• Hence, Daniel’s Car
• FC; =60 L 830 km
• = 7.2 L / 100 km
• = 7.2 L / 100km @ 7.2 in L/100km fora combination of Highway & City Driving
CONVERSION TO OTHER UNIT
• L / 100 km to Miles Per Gallon (MPG)
• b) L / 100 km to Km / Liter
• note that when conversion is made to either MPG or Km/liter, the
value they represent is termed “Fuel Economy” or “Fuel Efficiency”
• A)To convert L/100km to MPG,
• Y (MPG) = 282.58
• X (liter / 100 km) and, vice versa
• X (L/100 km) = 282.58 Y (MPG)*this is a reciprocal function
convert miles per gallon (mpg) to kilometers per liter (km/L)

• From miles per gallon (mpg) to kilometers per liter (km IL) fuel
consumption conversion,
1mile = 1.609344 km and
1gallon = 3.78541 1784 liters
MPG to km/L
1MPG = 1.609344km/3.78511784 L= 0.4251437km/L

Example
To find out how many miles per gallon is 9 kilometers per liter.
convert km/ L to L/100km

• From kilometers per liter to liters per 100 kilometers fuel consumption
conversion, divide 100 by the kilometers per liter value.

• 1km/L= 100L/km

For example, to find out how many liters per 100 kilometers is 9 kilometers
per liter, divide 100 by 9, that makes 11.111 liters per 100 kilometers.
convert MPG to L/100km
• As 1 mile per gallon (mpg) is equal to 235.215 liters per 100
kilometers (1/100km), to convert mpg to 1/100km, divide 235.215 by
the miles per gallon value. or
1mile = 1.609344 km and
1gallon = 3.78541 1784 liters
GPM to L/Km
1GPM = 3.78511784 L/1.609344km = 2.352L/km

1GPM = 2.352*100L/100Km = 235.2L/100Km

For example, to find out how many liters per 100 kilometers is 24 miles per gallon,
divide 235.215 by 24, that makes 9.8 liters per 100 kilometers.
• Q;Let say given FC is 6.6 L/100 km, so the MPG?
• Q. What is the Fuel Efficiency in (Km/L) for given FC 8.5 (L/100 km)?
Speed and fuel economy studies
• The most recent study indicates greater fuel efficiency at
higher speeds than earlier studies
• Example, some vehicles achieve better fuel economy at
100 km/h rather than at 70 km/h.
The amount of fuel energy that a vehicle consumes per unit of
distance (level road) depends upon:
I. The thermodynamic efficiency of the heat engine
II. The forces of friction within the mechanical system that delivers engine
output to the wheels.
III. The forces of friction in the wheels and between the road and the
wheels (rolling friction).
IV. Other internal forces that the engine works against (electrical generator,
air conditioner, water pump, engine fan, etc.
V. External forces that resist motion (e.g., wind, rain).
VI. Fuel consumed while the engine is on standby and not powering the
wheels, i.e., while the
VII. vehicle is coasting, braking or idling.
IMPROVING YOUR FC
• a) Keep Your Speed Below 100Km/h (roughly 60 Mph) or Drive Slowly!
Generally speaking, by going over 100Km/h, your FC will suffer,
ranging from 20% to 30% of your best FC.
• b) Don’t Push The Pedal Too Hard Yes, take it easy on the pedal.
Speeding and rapid acceleration and braking would reduce your gas
mileage up to 20%!
• c) Moderation in Air-conditioning The air-compressor drew its power
directly from your engine so it is advisable for you to put the
compressor at minimum (and/or your usage!)
• d) Avoid idling / Excessive Warm up) Avoid bad road condition / traffic
congested route
 Basic Concepts in IC Engines

• brake Torque (Tb): is the mean (average) turning moment available at the
‘output shaft’ or at the ‘flywheel’.

P b 60 × Pb 2𝜋𝑁
T b= = 𝑤h𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜔= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ′ 𝑁 ′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛′ 𝑟𝑝𝑚 ′ .
𝜔 2π ×N 60
• brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc): is the amount of fuel consumed by
the engine (mf ) in kilogram per hour (kg/h) to develop a brake power (Pb) of
one kilowatt (kW). m
f
bsfc 
Pb

68
 Basic Concepts in IC Engines …

 For SI Engines
• brake Power (Pb)

brake Power (Pb): is an engine performance parameter which mainly determines, the ‘rate of
work done’ and/or the ‘maximum (top) vehicle velocity (vmax)’.

• brake Torque (Tb) 60  Pb  1000

Tb   ' Pb ' in ' kW ' ; ' N ' in ' rpm' ; ' Tb ' in ' Nm'
2π  N
N @Tb - max  ( 0.5 to 0.9 )  N @Pb - max

brake Torque (Tb): is an engine performance parameter which mainly

determines, the ‘traction’, ‘acceleration’ and ‘uphill drive (grade) ability’ of 69
the vehicle.
 Basic Concepts in IC Engines …
Empirical Relations
 For SI Engines
• brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc)

  N   N  
2

bscf  bscf @P -max  1.2   1.2      ' N ' in ' rpm ' ; ' bsfc ' in ' gm/kWh '
  N   N @P -max  
  @Pb - max   b  
brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc): is the amount of fuel consumed by
the engine in ‘gram per hour (gm/h)’ to develop a brake power (P b) of one
kilowatt (kW) while running at a constant engine speed (N) in ‘rpm’. It is an
engine performance parameter which mainly determines, the ‘fuel
consumption’ or the ‘fuel economy’ of the engine.

70
 Basic Concepts in IC Engines …

Empirical Relations …
 For SI Engines …
• brake mean effective pressure (bmep)

2  N  Tb
bmep   ' bmep' in ' bar '.
60  E c  n
brake mean effective pressure (bmep): is an engine performance parameter which is
used to compare engines for ‘design’ or ‘output’, as it is independent of ‘engine capacity
(Ec) and/or speed (N)’ unlike ‘power’ and ‘torque’.

71
Performance Curves of IC Engines
• During engine design, one of the most important tasks is; obtaining the maximum
cylinder gas pressure (pg_max) during the entire range of engine speed (Nmin to Nmax).
• This can be determined from the ‘Engine Performance Curves’. ‘Engine Performance
Curves’ mainly include the curves of:
• brake power (Pb), brake torque (Tb) and brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc)
plotted against or versus engine speed (N).
• Such curves can be obtained using ‘Analytical’ or Empirical’ Relations. ‘Analytical
Relations’ can be formulated from a tedious mathematical analysis of engine cycles
and processes with a detail mathematical analysis of combustion processes.
• Hence, such a task is not only difficult but also time consuming. ‘Empirical Relations’
can be formulated from experimental (engine performance test) data using ‘Curve
Fitting’ methods.
 
Pb  Pb_max  x  x  x
3 2
 where, x 
N
N @Pb _max
........... ' N ' in ' rpm ' ; ' Pb ' in ' kW '

N min  500  1000 rpm and N max  ( 1.05 to 1.15 )  N @Pb -max ;
N max  N min
ΔN   I N  10
IN

Pb 2π  N
Tb  ............ in ' Nm ' where, ω 
ω 60

bscf  bscf @Pb_max x 2  1.2 x  1.2 ............ in ' kg/kWh '

Performance Curves

Scale
Pb = 1:1
Tb = 1:2
bmep = 5:1
bsfc = 1:25