Kaveh Ostad-Ali-Askari

Because of the complexity of soil water distribution, accurate prediction of wetting pattern is not easily accessible and this has led to a inefficiency in some proposed models in the literature. These models do not consider the hydraulic characteristics of the irrigation system and are developed solely on the basis of the water volume or infiltration rate, soil hydrodynamic properties, and other conditions of the percolation environment. Objective: Due to the importance of the estimation of wetting front beneath Subsurface Drip Irrigation (SDI) laterals, a semi-empirical model using easily accessible data of the SDI system is proposed to predict the wetting patterns in both distribution and redistribution phases. The aforementioned model has been developed based on a novel approach that couples the governing equations of the lateral hydraulics with empirical equations derived by dimensional analysis. Methods: To develop the model and evaluate its performance, three 16-mm drip line pipes with 0.2, 0.4, and 0.5 m emitter spacing, and 2-5 l/h discharge were placed at 0.20 m depth in a soil box filled with clay loam soil. Water was applied for 3 hours at 50, 100, and 150 kPa operating pressures, and the wetting patterns' geometries were measured in each lateral after 1, 2, 3, and 24 h. The performance of the model was then assessed and compared with that of three other models. Results and conclusion: The result demonstrated that the proposed model provides the most accurate estimations of the wetting depths and widths. RMSE and MAE statistical indexes of the wetting depth were 0.001-0.002 m and 0.004-0.009 m, respectively, whereas those associated with the wetting width were 0.001-0.003 m and 0.005-0.016 m, respectively. These values resulted in the lowest error when compared with the corresponding obtained from other well-known models. Consequently, the model allows acceptable predictions of the wetting patterns using accessible hydraulic parameters of the SDI system. Significance: Uniquely, the results of the lateral hydraulic analysis were applied to determine the wetting front dimensions in this study. Also, the results demonstrated that the model was successful in wetting pattern prediction beneath the lateral as a line source. While other models usually are used to estimate the wetting front around a point source.

Morphology is one of the most important branches of river engineering science. Examining the changes in the geometry of sections in rivers that feed large dams is of particular importance. In fact, gaining a better understanding of the river's behavior will reduce potential damages to hydraulic structures and public infrastructure. In this regard, in this research, the morphological changes of Bazoft River, one of the sub-basins of North Karun, which enters the Karun 4 Dam at the end, have been investigated. In this study, using 26 Landsat +ETM and OLI satellite images, the displacement pattern of the main river channel, along with the changes in width and sinuosity resulting from sedimentation and erosion processes in long and short-term intervals leading to the year 2015 and caused by large floods in this period of time was investigated. The results showed that the average displacement of the main channel of the river leading to erosion (sedimentation) for the right and left banks is 14 (15) and 14 (14) percent of the average width of the river, respectively. Also, the net area change rate due to the displacement of the main channel of the river for the right and left banks was obtained as -1.8 and 0.3 hectares per year, respectively. By examining the effect of floods, it was found that the amount of erosion is higher than sedimentation on both coasts, and the left coast is more dynamic than the right coast. The average width of the river in the 30-year period for the four investigated periods is 33.8, 44.7, 40.2, and 38.6 meters, respectively. Also, the width of the Bazoft River did not change much before the biggest flood in 2009 and its value did not exceed 40 meters. But after the flood, the width of the river suddenly increased and these changes seem obvious. The maximum increase in width is related to the second span of the river and its value is equal to 70 meters. Investigations related to four longitudinal intervals along the river's path showed that the sinuosity value in all years in the first interval had an almost constant trend, but in the second and third intervals, its value is higher, so these two intervals are more active than the other two intervals be in the fourth span, which leads to the Karun Dam 4, changes in sinuosity have a downward trend. Also, the results showed that the dewatering of the Karun 4 dam had a significant effect on all the morphological parameters of the Bazoft River in the fourth period. The results of this study perfectly indicated the capability of revealing the river form changes using Satellite Images Time Series (SITS). This homogeneous result indirectly shows that the erosion rate of the upstream basin and the sediment load of the river increased during this period. Therefore, while updating the status of rivers, the effects of protective and structural measures in such rivers can be evaluated in this way and corrected for improvement.

This study looked at how the quality of wastewater changed when the soil surface was improved during furrow irrigation. To do this, we did 20 irrigation activities in four small channels, and then we checked the quality of the water that flowed out and the water that ran off. Studies have shown that the amount of dirt and salt in the wastewater increased significantly when it was dumped on the ground. The increase in electrical conductivity during the irrigation season is greater when the substrate becomes more stable. However, the changes in the biological factors of the wastewater (Chemical Oxygen Demand and number of Total-coliforms) were different when it moved through the furrow compared to when it was initially used for irrigation. The increase of these markers in the first water system is due to damage caused by high temperature and increased pollution in the air and soil. It could be possible to decrease pollution in future water systems by combining oxygen in the air and increasing the flow of wastewater. Also, the soil can help remove some harmful bacteria. The results indicate that when the SAR, TSS, COD, and EC levels of the incoming wastewater are high, the reduction of pollution decreases due to advancements in technology. Appear consider is one of the important factors that analyze how technology affects the quality of wastewater in the soil. Wastewater treatment relies on how well the soil is working when it comes to jute irrigation. This includes factors like the quality of the liquid being put into the soil, how strong the liquid is in eroding the soil, the speed of the air, and the temperature of the air. The treatment process is very sensitive to the quality of the liquid being treated, and the point at which the irrigation is turned on is more important than other factors. Additionally, when considering how well soil acts as a natural filter, it is recommended to compare how well water drains through the soil and the water that runs off from using jet water irrigation. We can study how different amounts of water movement affect plants, soils, and the strength of different flows and seasonal changes in improving or worsening the quality of wastewater in surface irrigation. Given the current lack of water, it is important to study how using wastewater for irrigation affects soil pollution and plant health.

In order to investigate the performance of constructed structures in Sardash-Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari watershed, Soil and Water Assessment Tools model for simulation of runoff and sediment during the studied period of 1996-2012 was carried out for two cases of existence and absence of flood control structures. From 2007 onwards by performing watershed operations in these sub-basins, the average runoff rate decreased about 250 l/s for sub-basin 1 and 150 l/s for sub-basin 3. This indicates the flood was controlled in these basins. On average, the runoff volume has decreased by 0.25 and 0.15 m3 in the sub-basins 1 and 3 respectively in the presence of the structure compared to the absence of structures. A daily, Monthly simulation time stage and a continuous-time step restrict the usage of the SWAT pattern for comprehensive, occurrence-based flood simulation. The occurrence of acridities and unexpected projections in numerous sectors of Iran, also the density on basic conveniences precious by mass growth, has owing to a broader difference in deliberation to the problematic of water straight in the alliance. Calibrating a hydrologic model of Sardash-Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Basin. Using SWAT. Subjective Workload Assessment Technique (SWAT) is a multidimensional scaling method designed to assess time load, mental effort load and stress load. According to the results of Mann-Kendall Test, Watershed management in the Sardash-Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari basin for flood control and runoff can be considered acceptable. Before the watershed operation, the occurrence of runoff with the probability of 80% was zero, which after the operation, the probability of occurrence was reduced by 60%, indicating a positive effect construction of flood and sediment control structures in the Sardash-Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari basin. The results of the hydrological regime curve show that the changes in the monthly runoff ratio to the average monthly runoff before the watershed operations had been more. Due to the limitations, current Soil and Water Assessment Tools simulations in tropical and subtropical regions face a series of problems related to relative humidity, water balance, and sediment. Soil and Water Assessment Tools Model is also used to estimate the maximum daily flow rate.

So far, the law of conservation of mass based on "mass-time" (∂M/∂T) has been used to provide kinetic models. Based on the author's studies, no mathematical model capable of fully explaining the kinetic curves has been written so far. In this article, for the first time, the law of conservation of "dynamic mass" based on "mass-mass" (∂M/∂M) is used. In chemical equilibrium reactions, it is possible to apply the law of conservation of mass in the form of mass-mass and mass-time. One of the important characteristics of the "dynamic mass equation" is that, in addition to obtaining mass-mass models, it also enables its transformation into mass-time (kinetics) models. In this article, using the dynamic mass equation, the mass-time model for constant concentration and variable (unlimited) concentration is presented. Then the "Instantaneous reaction rate" models for products and reactants are obtained. It is also shown that for an equilibrium reaction, the obtained models are able to calculate the product production capacity for each amount of reactants.

Successful plant regeneration is an essential goal of many plant tissue culture studies. Most plant growth regulators used in plant tissue culture are chemically synthesized. They play an important role in controlling growth in vitro conditions. To improve the economic conditions of plant cultivation, tissue culture is one of the biotechnology tools that play an important role in plant reproduction and genetic modification. Most of the success of plant tissue culture is due to the standardization of the culture medium used for a special plant. The use of culture media containing cyanobacteria can remove one of the micro-environmental difficulties, which is the use of expensive chemicals. It can also produce valuable secondary metabolites. Due to the high cost of most plant growth regulators, the use of these materials has great economic importance. In this study, using the personal knowledge and experience of skilled authors in plant tissue culture and also reviewing more than 50 articles from different databases, a review article has been prepared so that readers can rely on the contents of this article to get the best results from the activity. Therefore, it is suggested to use microalgae, which in addition to being natural are both growth regulators and a kind of nutritional factor, to increase the quality and quantity of products, instead of using chemical growth regulators, which are very expensive.

The volume balance is one of the simple model in surface irrigation. The shape factors are necessary in this model. In this research, a full hydrodynamic model based on the numerical solution of Saint-Venant equations are described to calculate the shape factors and investigate their time variation in different soil textures under furrow irrigation. The results showed that the range of surface shape factor variation was more in heavy soils and also it increased at the first of advance phase and then its variations decreased. The subsurface shape factor had a decreasing trend in heavy soil and increasing trend in medium and light soils. The sensitivity degree of shape factors to different parameters were not the same, so that the surface shape factor and the subsurface shape factor were the most sensitive to in sandy soil and also the surface shape factor was the most sensitive to geometric shape factors of furrow and are geometric shape factors of furrow) and subsurface shape factor was not sensitive to any of parameters in clay soil. The shape factors calculated using the hydrodynamic model made the precision of the volume balance model increase up to 7%. Using the results of this research in the field, furrow irrigation can be designed with more time than the normal volume balance model, but measuring some parameters such as the geometric coefficients of the furrow may be difficult, which is the main limitation of this research.

This article presents the development of a new method of calculating land leveling with the advantages of saving time and simplicity. The conventional method uses a trial-and-error process to determine the desired cut-to-fill ratio, which is tedious and time-consuming. In the developed method, the process of trial and error is not necessary. Instead, an Excel solver is applied to determine the leveling plane equation and minimize the excavation volume based on the desired cut-to-fill ratio. Then, the results of the new method for the three datasets are compared with conventional methods and genetic algorithms (GA). In all datasets, the results of the new method are better than the other two methods. The cutting to fill ratio and cutting volume in the new method are lower than other methods.

In surface irrigation, uniformity of longitudinal slope and depth of tillage are very important factors in advance duration time. Inappropriate tillage and land preparation can cause uneven surfaces and non-uniform slopes in fields which is especially important in furrow irrigation due to their influence on advance times. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effect of non-uniform longitudinal slope due to inappropriate tillage on advance and recession phases in furrow irrigation system, which plays an important role in irrigation uniformity and application efficiency. For this purpose 12 furrows, each 42 m long were made with different longitudinal slopes and a width of 0.6 meter. The number of irrigation was 5 with irrigation interval of 4 days and input discharge of 0.8 lit/s. Results showed that advance times are very different in furrows especially in the first irrigation and varied from 19min up to 50min. The values for recession time were 9 to 29 min. The results of these five irrigation events indicate that non-uniform slope has significant effect on advance and recession time. Therefore with attention to the water crisis and the need to increase efficiency and uniformity of water distribution in surface irrigation, using modern machinery and paying more attention to accurate preparation of land are necessary in order to obtain uniform furrows in fields.

One of the effective ways for the flow of water in low head water conditions is using triangular duckbill weirs. Regarding the high efficiency of these weirs in higher rate of flow discharge in constant head water conditions, the investigation about this type of weirs is greatly required. The present study is done on triangular duckbill weir with two different vertex angle, installed in the laboratory straight channel. In the upstream of the installation place of the triangular duckbill weir, some flow guide vanes with different specifications are installed and the required tests were done in three different groups. The discharge coefficient was calculated by obtaining the required laboratory parameters, such as upstream water level and upstream velocity in free flow conditions. The ration of the flow discharge over triangular duckbill weir to the flow discharge of straight weir was calculated and the graphs relative to the total water head were drawn. The results show that the flow guide vane with smaller width has more effects on the efficiency of the triangular duckbill weir. Moreover, in all wall angle of located vane, the efficiency of weir with larger vertex angle is less than that with smaller vertex angle. Since the flow interference is increased by increasing the flow discharge in the triangular duckbill weir with low vertex angle, then, the presence of the flow guide vanes can reduce the horizontal component and increase the vertical component of upstream velocity over the weir. Thus, the flow passes with more velocity over the weir crest at the same time and the flow discharge rate is increased and therefore the efficiency of this weir is increased.

The roughness coefficient is one of the most important factors in the study of Mountain Rivers. Measurement is a challenge in the rivers of our study due to shallow water, sharp slope, and severe turbulence. Sometimes measurements were quite risky. The objective of this study was to do measurements in a laboratory. Experiments were conducted in a laboratory flume 8-meter-long and 40 cm high under 4 different slopes, 3 flow rates, and 2-grain typologies (particle sizes of 10, 20, and 30 mm) with rounded and angular particles. Results showed that; the bigger the particle grain was the greater the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor or coefficient for constant flow rate. In addition, the Darcy-Weisbach coefficient was greater by 15.54% for sharp-edge particles than for round-edge ones. Entire hydraulic confrontation on a moorland agronomic place may be influenced by numerous features excluding standing flora. Irregular unpleasantness parameters are utilized to characterize surface microrelief. In this consider, irregular harshness was decided taking after six chosen culturing operations. Irregular harshness estimations concurred closely with values detailed within the writing. Surface runoff on upland ranges is analyzed utilizing water powered unpleasantness coefficients. Darcy-Weisbach and Keeping an eye on pressure driven harshness coefficients were recognized in this examination on each soil surface where irregular harshness values were decided. Pressure driven unpleasantness coefficients were gotten from estimations of release rate and stream speed. The exploratory information were utilized to infer relapse connections which related Darcy-Weisbach and Keeping an eye on pressure driven unpleasantness coefficients to irregular harshness and Reynolds number. Random roughness values accessible within the writing can be substituted into the relapse conditions to appraise pressure driven unpleasantness coefficients for a wide extend of culturing executes. The precise expectation of water powered unpleasantness coefficients will move forward our capacity to get it and appropriately show upland stream power through pressure.

Surface runoff is an important area of interest for different civil and environmental engineering practices including flood forecasting, water resources management, as well as solving water quality and quantity problems. Most empirical models are black box models, implying very little is known about the internal processes that control how rainfall-runoff processes. One of the most practical and globally accepted rainfall-runoff model provided by American Soil Conversation Service, (SCS) known as SCS-CN where CN stands for Curve Numbers based on soil hydrological conditions. This semi experimental model has always been considered and used due to its simplicity and acceptable accuracy. With increased computing power and a deeper understanding of hydrological processes, rainfall- runoff models have become more sophisticated. Recently many researchers showed that the SCS-CN model has deficiencies and are needed to be improved. One of the challenges regarding this model is the relationship between rainfall losses and initial soil moisture conditions. In this research, 3RM model was used to introduce the new concept for rainfall Interceptions as Antecedent Effective Retention (IER) instead of the Antecedent Moisture Content (AMC) and was calculated by water balance method. SCS-CN model with this new revision were applied in Karde, Darjazin (arid and semi-arid climate) and Kassilian (very humid climate) watersheds in Iran. The results of the study showed that Karde watershed with more than 55% rock cover (hydrologic soil group D) and 4% area in hydrological group A has the lowest retention potential (16.7 mm). Darjazin watershed with 29.38% rock cover (D) and 3.27% hydrologic soil group (A) with a holding potential of 24.7 mm and Kassilian watershed with forest cover 77% and rock mass cover 0.0% has a lot of retention potential (51.1 mm).The value of (ratio of initial retention to potential retention) was obtained between 0.05 and 0.10 in different watersheds. Also, the results of the model fitting to the rainfall-runoff data showed that the evaluation indices including: coefficient of determination (R2), Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), Normalized Root Mean Square Error (NRMSE) and, Nash–Sutcliffe model efficiency coefficient(NSE) for predicting runoff in Karde and Darjazin watersheds (0.966, 0.729, 0. 347 and -7.288) and (0.9917, 0.440, .029, and 0.998) respectively, while the same indicators for the Kassilian watershed are(0.851, 1018, 0.264 and 0.867) respectively. The results demonstrate that the model has acceptable ability to predict runoff and actual retention in all three watersheds.

In this article, the effect of water quality on the hydraulic parameters of furrow irrigation was tested with 60 experiments with the quality of fresh water (FW), magnetic (MW) and non-magnetic effluent (WW). It was found that magnetism has no significant effect on the quality parameters of wastewater. Also, the effect of water quality on infiltration parameters such as final infiltration, average infiltration in certain time periods, especially in the advance stage, was not significant. But the final penetration reduction during the test period in MW and WW was more severe than FW and magnetism had little effect. These observations were similar to the results in the average penetration in certain time intervals except for the advance stage. Water quality did not have a significant effect on the time of discharge and progress and regression and the time of reaching the final infiltration. The results showed that the hydraulics of furrow irrigation was more affected by the soil and tillage than the quality of irrigation water and the magnetic field did not change the hydraulic effects of WW compared to MW.

This study is aimed to reach suitable regionalized models in which hydrological indices are deemed as dependent variables and physiographic features of various stations are independent variables. These variables are taken as inputs of multiple regression models. Results have shown that area is the factor affecting amplitude. Duration: area is the factor affecting D1, D4, D5, D6 and D11. Length of water stream is the factor affecting D2, D3, D4, D5, D6, and D11. Pure slope is the factor affecting D10 while Gravelius coefficient affects D11. Variability: Gravelius coefficient is the factor affecting V1, V5 and V6. Timing: area is the factor affecting T. Physiographic features and climate of different regions vary from one region to another. Form of the equations is not the same for all the selected regions. Therefore, it is likely that one variable very effective in one region does not enter the equation in another region. It may lead to necessity of further research on each region. Area which is almost the main factor affecting river flows in all researches conducted in Iran and other parts of the world, is of the highest role in Iranian studies. Drought is one of the most important natural events which are strongly interwoven with climate changes. Reversible events in arid or semi-arid resulted from deficient rainfall during a specific period of time may affect a vast part of lands. Determination of factors affecting hydrological droughts and study on the relationship among variables can be deemed as the most useful alternatives to deal with damages of droughts. The current study is aimed at introducing the most significant hydrological indices in order to analyze downstream of the understudy region and its relationship to 10 physiography factors. It is concluded that area used in the majority of researches conducted in Iran or other parts of the world is deemed as a significantly affective factor at least for river flows.

The reprocess of preserved effluent for irrigation in arid and semi-arid zones benefits to decrease the increasing compression on conservative waters and recover nourishment safety. The aim of this effort is to trace and rank appropriate places for irrigation with disciplined water applying geospatial methods and multi-criteria investigation. The nominated investigation zone is restricted by the phreatic aquifer of Jaghin (Hormozgan province, Iran). The entire zone essential to captivate all sewages of the diverse effluent conduct floras of the district was designed applying FAO-56 technique for different cultivations. Different restrictions were designated and applied to define the appropriate zones for irrigation with disciplined water. The appropriate zone covers 360 Km which denotes 11.1% of the entire investigation zone. This establishes a big region much higher than the required zone to dampen the three agricultures with the complete capacity shaped by the four preserved effluent floras of the area. Eleven basic standards were recognized by nonfiction and specialists referring, spatialized applying GIS, weighted applying pair-wise contrast, consistent by fuzzy reason purposes and combined applying weighted linear mixture technique. The consequence is a plan that positions appropriate places for irrigation with disciplined water. The greatest-designated places are dispersed through the investigation zone. To decrease conveying price of preserved effluent and to simplify the irrigated region organization, the designated places are assembled in plans situated at the south-west of the investigation region. This effort is a valuable method to care choice creators for combined water organization. It should be completed by an inexpensive assessment of the scheme so as to measure the financial advantage of the repetition. Furthermore, a multi-goal examination should be measured to enhance the disciplined water recycle amongst irrigation and other usages, particularly the universal spread method, accomplished aquifers refresh.

Value, intensity, and type of precipitation changes in temporal and spatial dimensions. Changes in precipitation cause changes in rivers flows. In this study for investigating the behavior of precipitation and debit of Babolrood basin, the Goran Talar station selected. Singular spectrum analysis (SSA) have been applied to precipitation and debit data collected in the Babolrood basin during the period 1980-2015. Results shown the existence cycles with 2 years return period in debit and precipitation. Days with heavy precipitation were identified in this basin. Then, atmospheric situation at the sea level pressure (SLP) and high level pressure (500hp) at the heavy precipitation days were analyzed. After grouping these days, based on cluster analysis technique, three patterns were determined as the dominant patterns of heavy precipitation in the Babolrood basin. After determining this patterns, it is found that the formation of short waves on top of long waves and their direction towards Iran is the most important cause of heavy precipitation in the Babolrood basin.

In this study in order to evaluate the accuracy of the equation and its coefficient variation in addition to obtain flow characteristics in six sections and estimates of geometric parameters using the SPSS software HEC-RAS 4, sampled in many points of bed soil and were used in analysis. Results showed that the bed was rough and this roughness was only a function of the high slope of waterway and velocity gradient predicted by equation has good agreement with obtained gradient. High slope of this gradient near bed represents instability of bed and sediment analysis performed by the software HEC-RAS 4 also confirmed upstream erosion. Velocity gradient predicted by the equation has good agreement with obtained gradient from the study sections, particularly near the bed and high slope of gradient to the vertical line represents the high speed and high turbulence near the ground and consequently. Instability of bed and this prediction with results of the sediment analysis has confirmed the preferred Yung method in HEC-RAS software (version 4). Prediction of 5-year longitudinal bed profile changes by the Yung pattern was shown in Figure 4. As seen in the upstream interval the dominant phenomenon was erosion and in downstream interval was not observed any changes (The model outputs are increased for better understanding).

When you talk about sustainable management of farmland system, the efficiency of resource and energy consumption are two key principles for being evaluated. The aim is to describe the result of comfort as a property in agriculture. Preparing food is one of the most important needs for human and this industry along with human development has been expanded. LCA helps us to face with a new safety guarantee in production industry. LCA acts like a collector of data for existing evidence firstly and then it motivates more testing, negotiation and deliberation which all together advise the purification of the technology. The result says that all of these energy origins with a variety of environmental characteristics create different interests and of course different challenges. This exploration, regarding to this fact that management is the most important subject in agriculture field at the moment, is not only necessary but also very profitable. As mentioned in previous section, having a quantitative analyze technique and besides a modeling tool for getting a real integrated analysis of agri-food systems is essential but not enough. It is deeply essential to integrate visions from political and social sciences in to agri-food survey. It is also necessary to understand political aspects of agri-food system. Suitable samples of such tension can be use of corn as a biofuel feed stock reducing its availability for food. This is a condition which can lead to drive up prices and also clear up rainforests for oil palm. These all bring health risks from air pollution related to fire. In agri-food survey, an integrated approach is totally about justice. In fact, science hypothesis of social justice suggests the first principles. By these principles it is possible to signify 'who achieve what and why' in any political system. Investigations regarding to universal food security must also answer more important ethical and practical questions about procedural justice.

Water quality problems are world spread as a result of land use changes and industrial development. Water deficit problems become more severe in result of water quality ignorance. Determining the probability values of water quality parameters (elements) for specific return periods could be very helpful in water resources management and conservation in terms of quality. In this research some water quality parameters such as: SO4 2-, Cl-, HCO3-, TDS, TH, SAR, EC, Mg 2+ , Ca 2+ , K + , and Na+ were selected from 7 wells to study through which the most convenient statistical distribution function was determined for each parameter using EASYFIT software. To reach this aim 9 functions were used and the most suitable function was identified through Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. At the second stage the value of each parameter was determined for 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 year return periods. Results show that Wake by fits the best for most of parameters although GEV and Gen. Logistic are the second and third functions which best fit to data. Also return period graphs of each parameter in 7 sites show that SO4 2follows the steepest slope as well as SAR and Cl- .

Determine the flow resistance parameters are important in hydraulic calculations of mountain area with steep slops. The purpose of this study is investigation the effect of slope, speed, depth and size of roughness on the manning roughness coefficient in this shallow stream region. This is an experimental study about manning roughness determined for mountain areas covered bye particles in three different sizes and three gradients for different hydraulic conditions in a flume of 8.3 m long, 0.8 m width and 0.5 m height under bed slope of 0.0005. At the end of flow changes against the Manning roughness coefficient are shown, which includes above hydraulic parameters and discussed.

Chlorophyll-a (chla) is a source of water pollution. Monitoring the quality of water in reservoirs is necessary to take any action for protecting the water quality. Traditional methods of sampling are usually costly and time consuming. Also they need skillful labors and some areas are out of reach or sampling at those areas is dangerous. Remote sensing technology could solve problems of high cost, time consuming and unavailability of traditional sampling methods. Landsat 7 imagery is a suitable resource of data because it has been using since a long time ago and could be used to analyze past events. This research aims to investigate the possibility of eutrophication assessment in Acbatan reservoir (pool) using remote sensing images. Field data of the study such as chla were collected in 2010. To reach this aim first the Top of Atmosphere (TOA) reflectance of imagery was calculated for each band. Then the relationship between concentration of chla and reflectance values was determined. Different conversions were applied on reflectance values at the next step to find the best regression equation for estimating the concentration of chla. The best model for estimating the concentration of chla was based on the band ratios. The values of R 2 Adj and SE are 0.91 and 0.04 respectively for this model. Based on the results of this research Landsat 7 is capable of reflecting the eutrophication problem in a small reservoir (pool) as Acbatan.

Persian Shallot (Allium hirtifolium boiss) is a valuable medicinal plant that is native to Iran. This herb belongs to the Alliaceae family and a perennial herb. This research was conducted to investigate the effect of vermicompost and gibberellic acid on vegetative growth, mineral content and characteristics of Allium bulb. The results of this study showed that the highest level of leaf area (19.12 cm2) was related to 0.7 kg/m2 and (21.66 cm2) treated with 206 ppm of gibberellic acid, the most number of leaves (4.95) in the treatment of 410 ppm gibberellic acid, the most number of daughter bulb were (7.36), respectively, for treatment of 1.2 kg/m2 vermicompost and (7. 24) for 410 ppm treatments Gibberellic acid, the highest diameter of daughter bulb (10.82 mm) was related to 0.6 kg/m2 vermicompost treatment, the highest dry weight of bulb (1.92 gr) was 0.7 kg/m2 vermicompost, highest percentage bulb’s dry content (32.93%) was related to 1.2 kg/m2 vermicompost treatment and (33.72%) was related to 410 ppm of gibberellic acid, the highest amount of phosphorus (0.37%) was related to the treatment of 410 ppm gibberellic acid and the highest amount of potassium (1.92%) was related to 1.2 kg/m2 vermicompost treatment.

A new and relatively precise method was developed for correct design of pressurized irrigation laterals installed on sloping land with constant diameter. This method is combination of analytical and optimization methods. By the method minimum and maximum pressure and range of its variations can be calculated. On base of this calculation optimal length of lateral is determined, so that the range of pressure variations is not more than its allowable value. Results of this research were presented as a Table in order to guide line of design. It showed that two types of pressure distributions for laterals installed on sloping land. The first type occur when the pressure is decreasing and then increasing and thus there is a point for relative minimum pressure on lateral. In this distribution, difference between elevations of two ends of lateral to energy loss ratio is less than 2.85211. If this ratio be more than 2.85211, the second type distribution. In this distribution the pressure is increasing and reaches to its maximum value at end of lateral.

Drought, the main features of climate in Iran is that, in the realm of climate humid, and dry visible, in this study, a history of droughts and wet Rasht and Anzali, in different ways, on time scales daily, monthly and yearly , Using ERI Daily Rainfall Indexes, SPI Rainfall Standardized Index, and SIAP annual rainfall index. The

Water quality is as important as its quantity. Water in nature often has impurities that prevent the use of this vital substance. For this reason, different indicators are presented for the detection and elimination of impurities in the water. In this paper, the chemical parameters of the Karun River (within the Ahwaz-Mollasani) have been investigated in order to determine the corrosion or sedimentation in the irrigation system under pressure.For this purpose, two Ryznar and Langelier indicators have been used and after the necessary calculations it has been determined that the river water has a negative Langelier index (LSI<0) and a high Ryznar index (RSI>8.5) during the specified time interval, indicating high acidity during this time period, which causes deterioration and decay in Marine structures (Especially low pH areas)

One of the main concerns related to air pollution in megacities like the city of Isfahan is the existence of particulate matter. In this study, the model of artificial neural network (ANN) was used to predict the dust emission trend. Applicable information may be obtained from this model to control air pollution and reduce costs. In this model of ANN, the multilayer perceptron (MLP) method and backpropagation learning algorithm were applied. The parameters of wind direction and speed, humidity and temperature are the input and PM2.5 concentration is the output of the output of the model. The correlation coefficient of this model to predict PM2.5 concentration obtained by comparing actual data with simulated data was 0.80. Hence, the model proposed in this study is an efficient approach to analyze environmental issues related to PM2.5 concentration. For evaluating the model efficiency, the analysis of difference among the measured and simulated data was applied and showed the high efficiency of model in predicting particulate matter concentration. It is proved that the ANN model is an appropriate model to be adopted in predicting the air pollutants' measure in cities where there exist the concentration of pollutants and meteorological variables. Predicting PM2.5 concentration may be an efficient method applied in preventing measures like decreasing the greenhouse gas emission and promoting awareness among the effected. In this model the MLP and back propagation algorithm are applied. The source database consists of time series of meteorological variables and PM2.5 concentration collected in various stations in the city of Isfahan. The function of back propagation algorithms is to find correlations between PM2.5 and meteorological variables. These correlations are applicable in obtaining more information on the model to predict PM2.5 concentration. Using artificial neural networks can accurately model the relationship between meteorological, traffic data and PM 2.5 and PM 10 concentrations in the urban environment.

Identifying and distinguishing homogeneous units and separating them and finally separate planning for each unit is the most fundamental method of forest unit management, and creating these reliable maps of forest types plays an important role in optimal decision making for the management of forest ecosystems in large areas. The field method of forest circulation and closed exploration to determine the type of forest requires spending a lot of money and time. In recent years, the presentation of these maps using digital classification of remote sensing data has been considered. The important thing for creating these units is the scale of the map. For more accurate management, it needs a larger scale and more detailed maps. The purpose of this research is to compare the observed classification methods of identifying and determining the forest type using MODIS satellite land cover data with a resolution of 1 km and on the OLI sensor images of the LANDSAT satellite with a resolution of 30 km using vegetation indicators. PCA forest homogenous units are timely used to create better and more accurate resolution maps on a larger scale. Finally, by using verification, the best method for classifying the forests of Golestan province was obtained located in the northeast of the country,.

Groundwater resources require proper management in case of pollution due to purification difficulties. Considering the importance of Shalamzar Plain aquifer in supplying the drinking as well as agriculture water, its vulnerability was evaluated in this study. Through collecting the input parameters of the DRASTIC model including groundwater depth, net recharger, aquifer media, soil media, topography, the impact of vadose zone and hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer and preparing maps and integrating them with the Arc GIS 10.5 software, the vulnerability map of this plain was created. The findings of the present study revealed that the aquifer vulnerability in Shalamzar Plain could be categorized into four scales, namely very low, low, low to medium and medium to high, with ratios of 5, 11, 30 and 54 percent, respectively. According to the DRASTIC model, the maximum contamination potential was found in the southeast, north and northwest of Shalamzar Plain where the sediments in the aquifer's vadose zones are generally more coarse-textured than the sediments of other parts and the groundwater level is also low; as a result, the groundwater contamination potential has increased in this zone. The nitrate measured in 13 wells showed that the amount of groundwater nitrate was between 5 to 20 mg/l; therefore, it could be concluded that no nitrate danger threatened Shalamzar Plain groundwater. The correlation coefficient between the DRASTIC index and nitrate concentration in this plain was 0.8. The zoning map of Shalamzar Plain's groundwater contamination potential, using the DRASTIC index, showed high precision in the present study.

Todays, the problem of housing has undergone fundamental changes in the country, and the problems in this field have shifted from quantitative aspects to qualitative issues. The growing of high-rise buildings and high energy consumption of these buildings should be pursued in their sustainable development in all dimensions. Moving towards sustainability in the examined dimensions is highly urgent, the country's housing is in a state of instability and the continuation of this situation is in no way appropriate in the present situation. The occurrence of various phenomena of quickening, minimization and cheapening in any way has caused the newly built settlements in the country to lack the standards and criteria necessary to refer to their sustainable term, which in the long run could lead to a major crisis in the sectors related to housing. Due to the increasing growth of high-rise buildings, the high energy consumption of these buildings should be aimed at their sustainable development in all dimensions. Moving towards sustainability in the examined dimensions is highly urgent and in the present situation, the country's housing is in a state of instability and the continuation of this situation is in no way appropriate.

Hundreds of fires are occurred in the forests and pastures of the world and thousands of hectares of trees, shrubs and plants causing environmental and economic losses is destroyed. This research aims to create a real-time fire warning system for monitoring of forests and better management in Golestan province. In this study, in order to prepare fire hazard maps, the required layers were produced based on fire data in Golestan forests and MODIS sensor data. In this research, in order to prepare fire risk maps, the necessary layers were produced based on fire data in Golestan forests and MODIS sensor data. First, natural fire data were randomly divided into two groups of training and experimental samples. Then, the vegetation moisture stresses and greenness were considered using six indexes of NDVI, MSI, WDVI, OSAVI, GVMI and NDWI in natural fire area of training category on the day before fire occurrence and a long period of 15 years, and the risk threshold of the parameters was considered in addition to selecting the best spectral index of vegetation. Then, using six indices NDVI, MSI, WDVI, OSAVI, GVMI and NDWI, moisture stress and plant vegetation in the natural fire area of the training floor on the day before the fire and a long period of 15 years and the risk threshold were considered. Among the parameters, in addition to choosing the best spectral index of vegetation, it was considered. Finally, the output of the model was validated for fire occurrence in the experimental group. The results indicated the possibility of predicting the location of the fire before the fire occurred with an accuracy of more than 80%.

Nowadays, using different models to simulate natural processes has increased with technology development. The results of modeling always are uncertainties due to errors in input parameters and Existing deficiencies in the relations used in models. Uncertainty values increases by increase the number of parameters or decrease the quality of the input data. Different methods of calculating evapotranspiration that these are plant evapotranspiration simulations in environmental conditions are also no exception from this rule. Since the results of these models used in the design of irrigation and drainage networks, irrigation systems, water resources studies and ..., importance of uncertainty evaluation of the results of these models is high. In this study, the uncertainty values of monthly reference crop evapotranspiration calculated with the FAO-56 Penman- Monteith and Hargreaves-Samani methods by using data of 54 years has been evaluated. To calculate values of reference evapotranspiration, ETo Calculator and to the uncertainty analysis SPLUS2000 and Bootstrap test was used. The purpose of this study is determinate of the range of variation should be considered in the results of each of these methods. Based on the results, in both methods, bandwidth uncertainty obtained in 95% confidence interval in the warm months was more than the cold months and the Hargreaves-Samani method was always less than the FAO-56 Penman-Monteith method for the both of average and variance parameters. Minimum and maximum bandwidth value of average uncertainty was 0.094 and 0.203, and the minimum and maximum bandwidth value of variance uncertainty was 0.029 and 0.083 respectively in December and May in the Hargreaves-Samani method. Minimum and maximum bandwidth value of average uncertainty was 0.12 and 0.414, and the minimum and maximum bandwidth value of variance uncertainty was 0.039 and 0.44 respectively in December and July in the FAO-56 Penman-Monteith method. Uncertainty value in the FAO-56 Penman-Monteith method was more than Hargreaves-Samani method, because the number of parameters used in the FAO-56 method was more than Hargreaves-Samani method due to increase uncertainty resources. There have been numerous studies associated with comparison of calculated ET0 with real value of this parameter and their results confirm superiority of FAO-Penman-Monteith to other methods. Therefore the present study aims to determine the interval should be considered in results of each method. The results suggest that in both methods, range of uncertainty calculated in 95% confidence interval for mean and variance parameters in the warm months were higher than the cold months, and in Hargreaves-Samani it was generally lower than FAO- Penman-Monteith method. In Hargreaves-Samani method the maximum and minimum range of uncertainty for mean i.e. 0.094 and 0.203 and the minimum and maximum range of uncertainty for variance i.e. 0.025 and 0.105 were observed in December and May. Moreover, in FAO-Penman-Monteith, these values, that is, 0.12 and 0.414 for range of mean uncertainty, and 0.039 and 0.440 for range of variance uncertainty were observed in December and July. The reason for higher uncertainty in FAO-Penman-Monteith method compared to Hargreaves-Samani could be attributed to larger number of parameters used in this method and thus the more source of uncertainty in this method. The increased uncertainty in the warm months may be due to increased sensitivity of these methods to temperature variations in high temperature.

One of the main natural hazards has been considered recently is dust phenomenon. Iran is subject to the adverse effects of this phenomenon, due to adjacency to a large part of desert areas. Remote sensing can provide a global picture of the extent of dust storm activity by tracing smoky form of dust, and helps us to identify the exact sources of dust and provides valuable information on parameters such as thickness, concentration, and height of dust storm. In this study, dust detection indexes such as BTD, BTDI, LRDI, GDDI, and NDDI were applied on MODIS images in 2019. In this study, MODIS images of Terra and Aqua Satellites in 2019 and quantitative indexes of LRDI, GDDI, BTD, BTDI, and NDDI were used for dust dispersion detection in east of Isfahan province. These indexes were used on satellite images using bands 1, 3, 4, 7, 31, and 32. The results indicated that given desert areas in the eastern part of Isfahan such as Varzaneh, Segzi, etc., BTDI and LRDI have potential for separating dust from other phenomena. The results indicated that given desert areas in the eastern part of Isfahan such as Varzaneh, Segzi, etc., NDDI and GDDI could not separate earth and dust from each other, because the estimated index in this geographic area is less than the actual value. Moreover, the results showed the digital indexes of BTDI and LRDI have shown better results than other indexes for detecting dust in the eastern part of Isfahan province.

Nowadays, the development of transportation industry and urban traffic has resulted in soil, water and air pollution. Tehran is also one of the polluted cities. In this air, heavy metals such as iron, zinc, lead, cadmium, chromium, arsenic and nickel enter the human body system through inhalation, leading to problems for citizens. The use of falling dust is known to be a suitable and effective method for monitoring and measuring air pollution. Therefore, in this study, the amount of heavy metals Fe, Cd, Cr, As, Ni, Pb, and Zn was measured in each of the 22 districts of Tehran to evaluate the amount of contamination. For this purpose, 88 sampling points were considered in the entire city. Sampling was done in three months of winter 1400. Samples of surface dust were collected using pen brushes from the side of the main streets. Then, after preparing the samples (including drying, powdering and digesting), the concentration of the desired heavy metals was measured using an ICP-MS device. Then the indices of enrichment factor (EF), contamination factor (CF) and Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo) were calculated. Finally, the results obtained from the concentration of the studied metals were used to present the spatial pattern of the concentration of heavy metals using GIS software and inverse distance weighting (IDW) technique. The results showed that the highest concentration of all types of metals belongs to the central, south and southeast parts of Tehran. Also, among different elements, iron and then chromium have the highest average amount of pollution.

Salinity has a variety of salts, one of which is salinity of sodium chloride. Different plants react differently to salinity and their performance will vary according to their resistance, which after all the treatments, chlorophyll was measured. Depend on the outcomes of salinity consequences on native herbage; herbage features such as relative chlorophyll, and chlorophyll fluorescence were decreased. Also, salinity reduced the amount of potassium in the leaf and root, as well as increased sodium levels in the leaves and roots. This trait is the highest in control treatment and the lowest in treatment with 125 mg/L sodium chloride. Root length index was decreased to 1.25 mg/L sodium chloride in comparison to control treatment. This attribute is the level of 25 mM was not significant compared to the control. At the highest level of salinity (125 mM/L sodium chloride), the sodium content of the limb increased by about 3.5 times as much as the control. The concentration of sodium ion in the root is greater than that of the air. With increasing salinity, more sodium was accumulated in the root of the plant, while sodium was found to be less in the leaf. With increasing salt concentration, the highest root potassium in control treatment. The lowest amount in 125 mg/L sodium chloride treatment was observed. At the highest level of salinity (125 mM/L sodium chloride per liter), the amount of potassium obtained in the leaf of the plant was 25.2 times lower than the control treatment and according to Table 1, and the potassium content of the stem is 141.161 higher than the potassium content of the root. In dry state and the sodium content of the stem is higher than the sodium content of the root at 458.299 (in dry condition). The treatment error for sodium levels is higher than the potassium error rate. Treatment error has a 34% root stroke rootstock root error, and Sodium stalk treatment error is 52.4% higher than stem potassium and potassium stalk treatment error is 37.68% higher than root potassium. Sodium stalk treatment is more than 55% higher than root sodium. The number of leaves and the relative chlorophyll content of the control treatment were 48.65% and 52.31% higher than the salinity treatments. According to Table 6, potassium content of stems and roots in the control treatment is higher than that of 125 mg, 55.7%, and 66.53%. The sodium content of stem and root of the control treatment was reduced to 69.57 and 14.17, respectively, to 125 mg. In the control treatment, in Table 6, potassium content is higher than sodium, but in the 125 mg salinity treatment, sodium content is higher than that of potassium. The amount of 125 mg salinity treatment in Sodium was 49.26% higher than the sodium root. The amount of 125 mg salinity treatment in potassium is 68.22% higher than potassium root. Chlorophyll fluorescence in Table 5 in control treatment is 17% higher than salinity treatment. The trace of salinity of sodium chloride on herbages features of local plants in area has a minus trace in enhancing the condensation of salinity conduct, subtractive in herbage features (Isfahan, Iran) such as relative chlorophyll, chlorophyll fluorescence, number of leaves and ... decreases. This article was operated only in relation to vegetative features. It is proposed that the trace of sodium chloride therapy on output and output. Also, the article was carried out with sodium chloride saline therapy, and thus the next offer of trialing of other salinity therapy’s on herbal and functional features. The herbing bed was an amalgamation of Cocopeat and sand. It is better to test on local herbages of area in other substratum’s.

In order to optimize the usage of water in agriculture, it is necessary to increase the efficiency of irrigation systems, especially those of surface irrigation. One of the steps to be made to achieve this goal is the optimal design of surface irrigation. It this article the design variables of furrow irrigation, that includes length of furrow, inflow rate and irrigation time (time of cutoff), were calculated to minimize the irrigation costs, the objective function, and to obtain a maximum application efficiency. The objective function encompasses water, labor, head ditch and furrow digging (ditch constructions) costs. Labor cost is irrigation time's function and the latter is dependent on water advance period in the furrows. Therefore, it is necessary for the objective function to apply explicit and accurate equation in order to calculate time of advance. Because in none of the accurate methods for furrow irrigation design, such as zero-inertia modeling, the advance time is explicitly calculated, therefore in this research the equation obtained by Valiantzas, which he extracted from the results of zero-inertia modeling, was used. In the objective function in addition to the design variables the specifications of soil, furrow and net irrigation requirement also exist. Therefore, it is possible to calculate design variables and afterwards the irrigation efficiency for different soil types and plant types. In this article this task was performed with different soil types and in accordance with different requirements for irrigation and the results are presented in the tables.

Droughty areas formed about 1/3 of earth’s surface. The rate of rainfall in these areas is low and rate of evaporation is high that it sometimes arrives to 40 times more than rainfall. With this situation, droughty areas are in difficulty of water sources. Since surface waters are not trustable in these areas (because of low and irregular rainfall), human has tried to turn to sources of groundwater that has less environmental changes. Yazd- Ardakan plain is one of the areas that has groundwater tension and actually has faced to dropping of groundwater’s level and land settlement. According to negative conclusions and consequences of land settlement and vital importance of groundwater reservoirs in droughty areas, in this study, it’s been tried to do research and explore in this field and do analyze about effective factors of this field. Since agriculture has most consuming water volume, in this study, the basis of work was stayed on studying of agricultural activities, moreover developing of industry and population and some of performed plans in area were mentioned too. Obtained conclusions show that excavating of numerous wells through the revolution occurrence that there wasn’t accurate observe on excavating wells and also policies of government are main factors of increasing of cultivated surface and as result of that, increasing of exploiting from reservoir. Also agricultural activities especially traditional agriculture is main factor of losses and wasted water because of their low efficiency. Developing of industry and population are couple of effective factors of increasing consuming water.

In this study, the effect of mineral pumice was investigated in sewage treatment of the dairy industries with various factors such as adsorbent dose, mixing speed, pH and contact time were also studied. Results showed that granular mineral, with a contact time of 20 hours and a volume percentage of one third and pH of 8 has the ability to COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) decreasing up to 56.9%. However, by using mineral pumice in powder form, in 3 cases, higher efficiency than granules has been obtained. It seems that acidity conditions will not have a positive effect on this efficiency. As the contact time increased, the adsorption rate increased due to the increased probability of collision with the adsorbent surface mostly. With increasing the adsorbent dose, the absorption rate also increased especially in the range of 15 g/l. About mixing speed, no definite conclusion can be made, because in some cases, with increasing the mixing speed COD reduction efficiency decreased. Regarding the use of mineral pumice in reducing COD, according to the obtained results, it is better to use mineral pumice in granular form.

In various achieves of provincial organizations' primary scrutiny, in addition to a mere case, no studies in the field of meteorology have been obtained. Moreover, the only report relates to the study of Hardin watershed (the northern region), which was done by Jahan watershed management in Kermanshah Province in 1993. Therefore, it is commonly used to compile the following report. Qaleh Jouq watershed district with an area of 5639 hectares (39.66 km²) is located in 50 km east of Kermanshah and 5 km north of Harsin. It is possible to access this watershed through Kermanshah-Harsin region asphalt road. In addition, access to it is possible from another by-way. Temperature variation in ground level and altitudes were much lower than rainfall. Consequently, stations that measure temperature are much less than rain gauge stations. Such a situation is also true about the area of the study. It means that the number of temperature measuring stations is much less than rain gauge stations. The number of former stations is 4 which are in Kangavar, Firoozabad, Polchehr and Kermanshah. Therefore, considering and studying temperature and thermal gradients of the area with emphasis on statistics of the 4 stations did not provide acceptable results. To the aim, the system of environmental stations outside the study area has been used in this section. Regarding the maximum and minimum absolute values, it should be noted that there is no statistical remark in this regard.

The spatial distribution of daily, nightly and mean temperature trend in Iran′s Zayanderud river basin was carried out in this study by applying three approach of interpolation including Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW), Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) and integration of these two methods (IDW+MLR). In this study, t-test and statistical measures including mean absolute error (MAE), root mean square error (RMSE), systematic Root Mean Square Error (RMSEs) and unsystematic root mean square error (RMSEu) were used to evaluate performance of approaches. This study reveals that temperature trends are inversely correlated with the altitude. All three interpolation methods overestimate in prediction of daily and mean temperature trend and underestimate in estimating nightly temperature trend. Among three methods, IDW is the most accurate and precise in predicting daily and mean temperature trends. IDW is the most accurate and IDW+MLR are the most precise method to estimate nightly temperature trend. The MLR method for estimating nightly, mean temperature trend and the IDW method for estimating daily temperature trend have the lowest systematic error.

The relationship between crop production and amount of evapotranspiration is very important to agronomists, engineers, economists, and water resources planners. These relationships are often determined using classical least square regression (LSR). However, one needs high amount of samples to determine probability distribution function. Linear regression also requires so many measurements to obtain the valid estimates of crop production function coefficients. In addition, deriving ET-yield regression for each crop and each district is usually expensive, since lysimetric experiments should be repeated for several years for each crop. The object of this study is to introduce a fuzzy linear regression as an alternative approach to statistical regression analysis in determining coefficients of ET-yield relations for each crop and each district with minimum data. The application of possibilistic regression has been examined with a case study. Two data set for winter wheat in Loss Plateau of China and North China Plain have been used. The current finding shows capability of possibilistic regression in estimation of crop yield in data shortage conditions.

The importance of watershed management can be specified in its goals vista. Watershed management can be defined in managing the watershed basins in order to maintain, revival and principled utilization of them. The floodwater control plan of Kangavar urban area was being studied by experts in watershed management study office of construction organization of Kermanshah province due to its special priority. Briefly, this plan was performed in two primary parts including base studies and preparing executive plan. Base studies were done by using topography map, statistics, necessary information and field surveys and the executive plan was being created by using general conclusion of base studies, aerial photos and field control. The considerable tip here which is necessary to mention is the close contribution of related offices such as: natural resources, municipality, government, agriculture and environment office to the construction organization in different executive steps of plans and the most important of all is to maintain them.

In this paper, global warming and risk management is first defined separately in a simple manner. Risk management in global warming is then identified. For a robust risk management, the global warming should be stopped or decreased effectively. It is indicated that global warming has an adverse effect on human and natural ecosystems. Human-induced global warming and the associated impacts will be continued during this century and beyond if greenhouse gases emission into the atmosphere would be still an active case. Individually and collectively, and in combination with the effects of other human activities, these changes cause the serious risks for a wide range of human and environmental systems.

Within this paper, weevaluate the accuracy of three methods of classification including: object-oriented algorithms of the satellite images classification without the use of fuzzy algorithms, algorithm based on fuzzy algorithms, and pixel based algorithms The accuracy of each method obtained by comparing the results with pixel based algorithm in land use/ land cover classification in Maragheh County. To reach this goal, AVNIR2 sensor images that generated from ALOS satellite were used to classify land use. The results obtained from the methods indicated that the classifications which produced by object-oriented classification method were more accurate than that of pixel-based method. The accuracy of fuzzy knowledge based method was93.28%.However the accuracy of the object-oriented method without using of the fuzzy algorithms and the pixel based algorithm method were 88.06% and 83.79% respectively. According to these results, using higher spatial resolution images along with proper algorithms for extracting of features of land use classes is recommended to environmental researches.

Water deficiency in terms of together corporal and financial shortage is still a main problem internationally. The impending weather alteration danger has amplified the contrary pressures in dissimilar areas. This article intended at observing at the result of applying strategies in Asia to prevent and achieve water shortages. These circumstance investigations highpoint numerous applied strategies and their efficiency in each situation. We studied pertinent investigation articles containing of noble-revised paper journals, discussion records and aged nonfiction applying a content examination method depends on keywords for example water deficiency, water deficiency, weather alteration, strategies, interferences and resolutions. Depend on this cross-case examination, we exist important instructions educated, containing: reorganization of water depends on dissimilar public and segment requests, the position of investors appointment and community consciousness, and a want to instrument together short time and long-time organization tactics. There is no one-scope hysterics all rule explanation to water shortage. Sympathetic the background and social situation will be an important to imminent water safetyabsorbed interferences and rules, irrespective of measurement.

In order to design and construct hydraulic structures, such as dams, there is a need to determine the amount of river discharge. In ungauged watersheds, it is necessary to calculate their inflows through hydrological simulation. SWAT is one of the numerical models that are widely used for such purposes. For calculating the basin discharge, the model requires meteorological data, such as precipitation, temperature, wind speed, solar radiation and relative humidity, as well as physiographic data related to the basin surface, such as curve number and roughness coefficient. In this research, the Kasillian watershed in Iran has been used for hydrological simulation based on the SWAT model and the river discharge has been verified using data from Valikben hydrometric station, located at the basin outlet. Furthermore, the impact of each input data on the calculation of water flow has also been examined. Specifically, with an increase of 13.43 percent in the curve number and 0.15 in the overland roughness coefficient of the basin the simulated value of the average monthly discharge 2.52 and 0.01 percent closer to the observed average discharge value. Using all the meteorological parameters, the average mean discharge of the period increased with an error of 14.32 percent.

Contrary to Euclidean geometrical figures, fractals are chaotic and randomly generated. These figures are chaotic in all parts and this chaos is similar in all scales. The current study is aimed to investigate relative humidity using fractal dynamism of geomorphic filed of Shiraz Province. Then, climate elements are analyzed to separate the geomorphic filed of the whole region. Ultimately, algebraic analysis tries to examine tension between geoclimatic elements including temperature, humidity, and precipitation.at the mentioned stage, the effect of tension on relative humidity is evaluated since 40-year statistics have shown that any of the mentioned elements have the ability to combined spin. Therefore, structures of the mentioned elements help climatic indices to stay in thermodynamic equilibrium. Results have shown that fractal changes of humidity in cybernetics along with geomorphic condition of Shiraz district may distort Bakhtegan geomorphic balance. On the other hand, according to fractal status of relative humidity in terms of material and energy balance, the mentioned domain may get unbalanced under the effect of Fasa geomorphic domain and then move towards Persian Gulf base-level.

Nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P) are key nutrients in eutrophication problem of water bodies. This problem has been mostly studied for reservoirs in the literature. However, from an Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) view point, all sources of nutrients entering into water bodies – rooted mainly in farm lands - have to be controlled and reduced on a watershed scale to get the desired response of water bodies to mitigation actions. This research focuses on the agricultural sector mainly to show the effect of the extent of fertilizer usage on the eutrophication rate. An object oriented modeling approach based on the concepts of system dynamics (SD) is used in this study. It aims to build a model capable of considering dynamic feedback loops influencing the flow of nutrients through a watershed for managerial purposes. System dynamics is helpful to address the relations and interactions of different parts of a system in terms of feedback loops. The characteristics and attributes of elements in the system will be addressed by adapting their main features to the principal concepts in the context of an Object Oriented (OO) modeling methodology such as classes and objects. A watershed composed of different sub basins is set out as a system to configure its objects and their associations. Also physical rules are used as main equations to clarify the inter-relationships of different objects within the system.

The goal of this study was to demonstrate how to use resources better inside a company and improve the ability to use and make the most of minerals. In this research, we aim to show a new way to clean petrochemical wastewater. This bentonite sample went through a production process in a microwave using Nano Precision to make a long chain of detergents. It was then mixed with an organic material (dimethyl octadecyl ammonium chloride) to make it work better. At the start of the tests, MINITAB software and the Taguchi method were used to analyze the data. The samples were taken at different times, and then they were tested using a standard method. There are 5 things that affect how clear water is: turbidity, TSS, TDS, pH, and COD. These things changed over time, depending on what was in the water. The amount of COD in the wastewater is very important. The wastewater from making chemicals from oil was checked, and the amount was noted. 16 ppm. Furthermore, the material a (changed bentonite) had the highest murkiness level of 1.2 NTU when 10mg per liter of sludge was used. Because the country needed to improve how it treated wastewater to protect the environment, this paper tried to make bentonite better and use nanotechnology to help with this.

Water is the main source for the production of agricultural products and services. However, high levels of water stress and increasing periods and severity of drought, mainly due to climate change, have reduced freshwater resources in arid and semi-arid regions. Despite the drastic reduction of fresh water resources, the efficiency of irrigation water consumption is also very low, and water management is not satisfactory. Legal, social, technological, and political issues are the main reasons for failure in proper irrigation water management. Checking on the part of agribusiness in improvement, along with expanding mindfulness and changing choice producers almost the chance of exhaustion of water assets, as well as the improvement of rural businesses and coordinates arranging to progress water productivity, are methodologies that can offer assistance in water administration in irrigation more successfully. Expanding weight on water assets, particularly within the agrarian division, is related to impacts on energy utilization. This highlights the issue of water shortages. Hence, it is essential to assess the supportability of water assets and biological system preservation and increase agrarian efficiency. As a result, a coordinate’s water-energy-food administration is required. In this respect, the comparison of vitality and water utilization for the water system of distinctive crops in a particular range was considered with the approach of adjusting water and vitality needs for the water system with financial benefits related to trim generation. The cost of water system water compared to the financial productivity of arriving for certain crops is one of the most motivating factors impacting the choice of water source. Within the field of water systems and vitality administration, pointers to irrigation-energy needs in conjunction with irrigation-economic proficiency are three vital components. The need for information around the relationship between water and vitality can lead to expanded vitality costs. In a long time, the modernization of water system frameworks, from gravity frameworks to pressurized frameworks, has driven to expanded water and energy efficiency, but has also driven to expanded vitality utilization. In these frameworks, the working time of the pump at a particular weight and stream to supply the specified water is the premise for calculating the sum of vitality utilization. The intelligence of energy systems in irrigation systems through the intelligent use of renewable energy sources leads to a reduction in irrigation costs. Agriculturists are progressively utilizing soil and trim dampness sensors to oversee the water system. This implies choosing how much water to utilize at the correct time and place, which is exceptionally successful in sparing vitality. The importance of efficiency (which is a managerial issue) in reducing energy consumption is raised here. Integrated irrigation network management is essential to minimize energy costs. Irrigation system management, in which energy efficiency at the pumping station is not considered, has high energy consumption and energy costs compared to the optimized system. Improving the integrated management of a water supply network leads to more efficient management of water and energy consumption. We can reduce or use chemical fertilizers efficiently, save water, use agricultural machinery properly, reuse crop residues to produce compost, and use renewable energy sources instead of fossil fuels to improve and conserve energy efficiency. Contributing to extend water effectiveness and making strides in vitality proficiency in edit generation are two ways to diminish natural issues in this respect. Sporadic utilization of energy in farming to attain higher trim yields is due to a few natural impacts, including the misfortune of non-renewable vitality sources, biodiversity misfortune, and expanded nursery gas outflows. The process of optimization, planning, and management of food-energy-water systems is very important in reducing energy consumption in irrigation systems. In a few ponders, estimates, calculations, and optimization models centered on specialized assessment (soil, climate, geology, farming, and water-geology), financial (subordinate on power cost, speculation life cycle fetched), and the possibility of utilizing sun-based or wind-based offices for water system purposes are displayed. Energy savings can be enhanced when new agricultural management strategies are implemented. This investigation lays the establishment for water administration as a complex work.

Today the effect of soil amendments materials on physical and chemical properties and root water uptake is of interest to researchers. The effect of different levels of sugarcane bagasse and its biochar on the yield of chlorda, leaching and absorption of solutes by soil and plant under CD and FD conditions and irrigation with municipal wastewater were investigated. This study was done in a greenhouse in column boxes as a two-factor factorial (drainage and additives) in the form of a completely randomized design with three replications. The first factor included control and free drainage (CD and FD) and the second factor was the use of two added levels of sugarcane bagasse(Bag1 and 2%) and its biochar (BIC 0.66 and 1.32%). Results indicated that the application of sugarcane bagasse and its biochar in the soil improved the physical characteristics of the soil, so that BIC1.32% had the most increasing effect was on water holding capacity of soil. In CD treatments a part of water and fertilizer requirement provided through capillary rise leading to an increment of yield and water productivity of chlorda plant by 1.8 times compared with FD treatment. As a result, the amount of application water in treatments with CD decreased by 22 % compared with FD treatment. Also, CD increased the absorption of nitrate and phosphate by the soil 44.25 and 28.78 %, respectively compared to FD, and also decreased 19.73, 24.23 and 31.23 %, respectively nitrate leaching, phosphate and the volume of drainage water compared to FD. The amount of nitrate and phosphate absorption by chlorda plant increased by 75 % and 13.3 % respectively in CD compared to FD. The results of the mutual effect of additives and drains on plant weight were significant so that in CD, C_CD and in FD, BIC1.32% treatment had the highest yield. The controlled drainage with BIC1.32%, BIC0.66%, Bag1% and Bag2% increased the dry weight of the plant by 26.2%, 13.2%, 25.8% and 26% respectively, compared to FD.

Construction in water is a difficult and dangerous job that requires a dry working surface. Cofferdams are one type of temporary structures designed to keep water and/or soil from the execution of construction at a site, so that the permanent facility/structure can be constructed in water (Anderson 2001). A cofferdam should have waterproof walls more than 1 m higher than the maximum water level to ensure that water does not enter the opposite side. Cofferdam design and construction involve the consideration of the structure, local soil and water conditions, often construction offshore, and the possibility of severe weather during construction. The hydrostatic force of the water and the dynamic force due to currents and waves must be considered in the design.

Harvesting water for future usage should be the prime concern of human beings. The variety of Internet of Things (IoT) technologies in water harvesting techniques will lead to a fruitful solution in determining the parameters associated with water harvesting anytime and anywhere. This technology helps the user to find the topographical conditions of the area, to determine the various parameters of the soil, the suitability of the soil for the specified crop, etc., which in turn helps to identify the type of artificial recharge techniques that can be applicable for that area for efficient water harvesting. This chapter briefly presents water harvesting methods. It describes IoT, followed by applications of IoT in water harvesting. The chapter covers the assessment of the available subsurface resources using IoT. Finally, IoT devices for efficient agricultural/irrigation usage are presented.

This book covers key areas of geography, environment and earth Sciences. The contributions by the authors include limnimetric scales, average ordinary flood level, water politics, water use conflicts, risk factors, Urban GIS, object-oriented approach, quality assurance plan, groundwater quality, hydrochemistry, water quality, oil shale, K/P ratio, settling tank, public diplomacy, soft power diplomacy, plasma, fuel reforming, syngas production, emissions, water treatment, membrane filtration, nano-filtration, electro-spinning, nanofibre, hydraulic modeling, diversion channel, environment related diseases, water quality index, physico-chemical parameters, saltwater intrusion, coastal aquifers, forest ecosystem, climate factors, ecosystem sustainability. This book contains various materials suitable for students, researchers and academicians in the field of geography, environment and earth Sciences.

Harvesting water for future usage should be the prime concern of human beings. The variety of Internet of Things (IoT) technologies in water harvesting techniques will lead to a fruitful solution in determining the parameters associated with water harvesting anytime and anywhere. This technology helps the user to find the topographical conditions of the area, to determine the various parameters of the soil, the suitability of the soil for the specified crop, etc., which in turn helps to identify the type of artificial recharge techniques that can be applicable for that area for efficient water harvesting. This chapter briefly presents water harvesting methods. It describes IoT, followed by applications of IoT in water harvesting. The chapter covers the assessment of the available subsurface resources using IoT. Finally, IoT devices for efficient agricultural/irrigation usage are presented.

A mathematical model, developed earlier in the Polar Geophysical Institute, is applied to investigate the transformation of global gas flows in the Earth's atmosphere over the course of a year. The model is based on the numerical solution of the system of gas dynamic equations. The mathematical model produces three-dimensional distributions of the gas dynamic parameters of the atmosphere in the height range from 0 to 126 km over the Earth's surface. To investigate the seasonal transformation of the global circulation of the lower and middle atmosphere, simulations are performed for conditions corresponding to twelve dates, which belong to twelve different months. Results of simulations indicated that the variations of the solar illumination of the Earth's atmosphere, conditioned by different positions of the Earth along its trajectory around the Sun, influence considerably on the transformation of the planetary circulation of the lower and middle atmosphere over the course of a year.

10 Steps to Climate Responsive Architecture: Climate responsive architecture takes into consideration seasonality, the direction of the sun (sun path and solar position), natural shade provided by the surrounding topography, environmental factors (such as wind, rain fall, humidity) and climate data (temperature, historical weather patterns, etc.) to design comfortable and energy efficient homes. In a nutshell, architects will need to consider the following before ever starting the design and architecture of a building: Perform a site analysis. Determine the weather patterns, climate, soil types, wind speed and direction, heating degree days and path of the sun. Look at the water flows, habitat and geology of the site. Document each with a qualified team of professionals to understand the ramifications of building in that specific place. Layout the building on the site. Using an integrative design process, use a basic massing of the building layout to determine specifically on site the most optimal location for the building to be situated. Factors to consider here are access to infrastructure, staying at least 100 feet clear of any watershed, not building within a floodplain and/or in a habitat with endangered species. Asking what trees and other existing geological features should be avoided or how water flows across the site can dictate the location of the building. It’s all about the sun — orient the building based upon cardinal directions. The goal here is to maximize the amount of sun that heats the space in the winter (hence using less energy to mechanically heat) and decrease the amount of sun that cooks the building in the summer (hence using less energy to mechanically cool). Select the appropriate window areas and glazing types based on orientation. South facing facades should utilize a window area appropriate to its orientation and glazing should utilize a double or triple paned glass with a low-e coating to minimize the amount of heat transmitted into the space in the hottest months, while keeping heat inside during the cooler winter months. For example, a south facing glass window wall will cook the occupants inside during the hot summer months if care is not taken to provide shade on the façade.

Statistics is a branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, interpretation, presentation, and organization of data. In applying statistics to, e.g., a scientific, industrial, or social problem, it is conventional to begin with a statistical population or a statistical model process to be studied. Populations can be diverse topics such as "all people living in a country" or "every atom composing a crystal". Statistics deals with all aspects of data including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments. Some popular definitions are: Merriam-Webster dictionary defines statistics as "a branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of masses of numerical data. Statistician Sir Arthur Lyon Bowley defines statistics as "Numerical statements of facts in any department of inquiry placed in relation to each other. When census data cannot be collected, statisticians collect data by developing specific experiment designs and survey samples. Representative sampling assures that inferences and conclusions can safely extend from the sample to the population as a whole. An experimental study involves taking measurements of the system under study, manipulating the system, and then taking additional measurements using the same procedure to determine if the manipulation has modified the values of the measurements. In contrast, an observational study does not involve experimental manipulation. Two main statistical methods are used in data analysis: descriptive statistics, which summarizes data from a sample using indexes such as the mean or standard deviation, and inferential statistics, which draws conclusions from data that are subject to random variation (e.g., observational errors, sampling variation).[5] Descriptive statistics are most often concerned with two sets of properties of a distribution (sample or population): central tendency (or location) seeks to characterize the distribution's central or typical value, while dispersion (or variability) characterizes the extent to which members of the distribution depart from its center and each other. Inferences on mathematical statistics are made under the framework of probability theory, which deals with the analysis of random phenomena.

The type of water in a story or novel is just as important as the fact that water is used as a symbol. Rivers often represent the flow of life or fertility. Rivers are typically used as symbols by authors because rivers flow; they are constantly moving and they follow a distinct path. Oceans, on the other hand, because of their scope in relation to the earth, often represent obstacles or abysses from which things emerge or that characters must journey across to reach a destination. Oceans are often symbolically mysterious places that can symbolize overcoming a great obstacle or being dragged down into deep depths by it. Lakes are often used as symbols in tales in which characters face great decisions or much introspection. Water generally cleanses, however, and it inevitably becomes a symbol of characters in stories handling difficult life scenarios. In any case, water is a symbol of power in stories. It has the ability to free characters as well as claim them.
By Dr. Kaveh Ostad-Ali-Askari

A branch of Applied Mathematics, Operational Research deals with real world problems. This requires a close collaboration among the clients (enterprises, entrepreneurs, companies, firms, organizations, etc.) who apply the advice of Operational Research, the specialists in Operational Research giving the advice, and everyone who will be influenced by the better decision. The clients may need various operational improvements – for example, increased production efficiency, lower costs, better quality, or improved planning. The mission of Operational Research is to cooperate with the clients and to identify and help to apply improved – if not optimal – solutions to practical problems arising in various branches of industry, transportation, business, etc.

Hydro-geology (hydro- meaning water, and -geology meaning the study of the Earth) is the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aquifers). The term hydrology is often used interchangeably. Some make the minor distinction between a hydrologist or engineer applying themselves to geology (hydrology), and a geologist applying themselves to hydrology (hydro geology).Hydrogeology is an interdisciplinary subject; it can be difficult to account fully for the chemical, physical, biological and even legal interactions between soil, water, nature and society. The study of the interaction between groundwater movement and geology can be quite complex. Groundwater does not always flow in the subsurface down-hill following the surface topography; groundwater follows pressure gradients (flow from high pressure to low) often following fractures and conduits in circuitous paths. Taking into account the interplay of the different facets of a multi-component system often requires knowledge in several diverse fields at both the experimental and theoretical levels. The following is a more traditional introduction to the methods and nomenclature of saturated subsurface hydrology, or simply the study of ground water content.Hydrogeology, as stated above, is a branch of the earth sciences dealing with the flow of water through aquifers and other shallow porous media (typically less than 450 m or 1,500 ft below the land surface.) The very shallow flow of water in the subsurface (the upper 3 m or 10 ft) is pertinent to the fields of soil science, agriculture and civil engineering, as well as to hydrogeology. The general flow of fluids (water, hydrocarbons, geothermal fluids, etc.) in deeper formations is also a concern of geologists, geophysicists and petroleum geologists. Groundwater is a slow-moving, viscous fluid (with a Reynolds number less than unity); many of the empirically derived laws of groundwater flow can be alternately derived in fluid mechanics from the special case of Stokes flow (viscosity and pressure terms, but no inertial term). The mathematical relationships used to describe the flow of water through porous media are the diffusion and Laplace equations, which have applications in many diverse fields. Steady groundwater flow (Laplace equation) has been simulated using electrical, elastic and heat conduction analogies. Transient groundwater flow is analogous to the diffusion of heat in a solid, therefore some solutions to hydrological problems have been adapted from heat transfer literature.Traditionally, the movement of groundwater has been studied separately from surface water, climatology, and even the chemical and microbiological aspects of hydrogeology (the processes are uncoupled). As the field of hydrogeology matures, the strong interactions between groundwater, surface water, water chemistry, soil moisture and even climate are becoming more clear.For example: Aquifer drawdown or overdrafting and the pumping of fossil water may be a contributing factor to sea-level rise

Hydraulics is a topic in applied science and engineering dealing with the mechanical properties of liquids or fluids. At a very basic level, hydraulics is the liquid version of pneumatic. Fluid mechanics provides the theoretical foundation for hydraulics, which focuses on the engineering uses of fluid properties. In fluid power, hydraulics are used for the generation, control, and transmission of power by the use of pressurized liquids. Hydraulic topics range through some part of science and most of engineering modules, and cover concepts such as pipe flow, dam design, fluids and fluid control circuitry, pumps, turbines, hydro power, computational fluid dynamics, flow measurement, river channel behavior and erosion.Free surface hydraulics is the branch of hydraulics dealing with free surface flow, such as occurring in rivers, canals, lakes, estuaries and seas. Its sub-field open channel flow studies the flow in open channels.

Steel connections:1. CONNECTIONS IN STEEL STRUCTURES
2.  Connections are structural elements used for joining different members of a structural steel frame work.  Steel Structure is an assemblage of different member such as “BEAMS,COLUMNS” which are connected to one other, usually at member ends fastners,so that it shows a single composite unit.3.  Bolts  Weld ,4.  Connecting Plates  Connecting Angles, 5.  On the Basis of Connecting Medium.  According to the type of internal forces.  According to the type of structural Elements  According to the type of members joining, 6.  Riveted Connections  Bolted Connections, 7.  Welded Connections  Bolted-Welded Connections, 8.  Used for very long time.  Made up of: Round Ductile steel bar called shank. A head at one end The length of the rivet should sufficient to form the second head.  Design - very similar to bearing type of bolted connection.
9.  Heating of the rivet  Inserting it to an oversize hole pressure to the head.  Squeezing the plain End by Pneumatic driver Round head.  On Cooling Reduces in Length–Clamping Force
10.  The introduction of high strength structural bolts.  The labour costs associated with large riveting crews  The cost involved in careful inspection and removal of poorly installed rivets.  The high level of noise associated with driving rivets., 11.  Fastened Together primarily by Bolts.  Bolts may be loaded in: Tension Shear Both Tension & Shear  Threads of bolts under shear force: Excluded - Increased strength Included - Decreased stregth.
12.  Bearing type bolts  High strength friction grip bolts (HSFG) , 13.  The most common type is bearing bolts in clearance holes, often referred to as 1. Black Bolts  Ordinary, unfinished, rough, or common bolts.  Least Expensive  Primarily - Light structures under static load such as small trusses, purlins etc, 14. 2. Turned Bolts  Similar to unfinished bolts.  Shanks - Hexagonal Rods  Primarily - Light structures under static load such as small trusses, purlins etc  Expensive – Limited use – Structures with no Slippage Connections, 15. 3. Ribbed Bolts • Round head similar to Rivets. • Raised ribs parallel to the shank. • Actual Diameter - slightly Larger than the hole • Tightly fit into the hole. • Popular - Economical in Material & Installation, 16.  Uses when bearing type bolts slips under shear  High strength bolts (8G or 10K grade) Pre-tensioned against the plates to be bolted together so that contact pressure developed between the plates being joined  Prevents relative slip when extra shear is applied  Higher Shear Resistance., 17. Advantages 1. The bolting operation is very silent 2. Bolting is a cold process hence there is no risk of fire 3. Bolting operation is more quicker than riveting. 4. Less man power is required in making the connections. Disadvantages 1. If subjected to vibratory loads, results in reduction in strength get loosened. 2. Unfinished bolts have lesser strength because of non uniform diameter
18.  whose components are joined together primarily by welds. Welding Notations were developed by American Welding Society (AWS)., 19. • Groove ( More reliable than others)  Fillet (Mostly used, Weaker than groove and others)  Plug (expensive – poor transmission of tensile forces)  Slot (expensive - poor transmission of tensile forces)  Plug and Slot welds – stitch different parts of members together.
20.  Horizontal  Vertical  Overhead  Flat
21.  Economical – Cost of materials and labors.  Efficiency is 100% as compared to rivets (75- 90%)  Fabrication of Complex Structures – Easy – like Circular Steel pipes.  Provides Rigid Joints – Modern Practice is of Rigid Joints.,22.  No provision for expansion or contraction therefore greater chances of cracking.  Uneven heating and cooling - member may distort - may result in additional stresses.  Inspection is difficult and more costlier than rivets
23.  Most connections are Shop Welded and Field Bolted types.  More Cost Effective  Better Strength & Ductility characteristics –Fully welded.
24.  Shear (semi rigid, simple) connections  Moment (rigid) connections
25.  Allows the beam end to rotate without a significant restraint.  Transfers shear out of beam  Most Common Types: Double clip Shear End Plate Fin Plate
26.  Designed to resist both Moment and Shear.  Often referred - rigid or fully restrained connections • Provide full continuity between the connected members • Designed to carry the full factored moments.  Principal Reason - buildings has to resist the effect of lateral forces such as wind and earthquake.
27. Bolted splice Moment Connection Field Bolted Moment Connection, 28.  Single plate angle Connections  Double web angle connections  Top and seated angle connections  Seated beam connections
29. Two Step Process  A plate is welded to secondary section (beam)  An Angle is welded to Primary Section (column or Beam)  single shear plate welded to secondary beam and bolted to Primary beam or column.
30.  Two angles welded or shop bolted to the web of a secondary beam.  After erection the angles are bolted or site welded to the primary member (beam or column).
31.  Generally used in case of moment connections.  Two angles are provided at top and bottom of the beam to resist moment.  Generally used for lesser moments where heavy loads are not acting
32.  Generally used in case of shear connections.  A seating angle - at bottom of secondary beam - shop welded to the primary member.  Seating angle resists vertical shear coming from the beam.
33.  Beam to beam connections  Column to column connections (column splices)  Beam to Column Connections  Column Base Plate Connections
34. Two Types  Primary Beam to Secondary Beam Connection  Beam Splice
35.  Connects column to column.  Column splice comes under this category.  Used to connect column sections of different sizes.  Splices - designed for both moment and shear unless intended to utilize the splices as internal hinges.
36.  Connects Beam to column.  Very Common  A wide range of different types are used Fin Plates End Plates Web or Flange Cleats Hunched Connections
37.  Beams are normally attached using two or more bolts through the web. End plate connections  single plate welded to the end of the beams  Bolted to the column flange or web - two or bolts pair. Fin plate connections  Single Plate welded to the Column.  Beams are normally attached using two or more bolts through the web.
38.  Steel plates placed at the bottom of Columns.  Function - to transmit column loads to the concrete pedestal.  The design of a column base plate: determining the size of the plate. determining the thickness of the plate
39.  A layer of grout should be placed between the base plate and its support for the purpose of leveling.  Anchor bolts should be provided to stabilize the column during erection or to prevent uplift.
40.  R Usually cost of fabrication and erection constitute as high as 50% of the total cost of steel structures, per tones of material used
41. BY NAVEEN ANKUR SWARNAKAR & AJEET SHARMA

The objective of this book is to present and discuss the underlying fundamentals, as well as the actual construction, of groundwater flow and solute transport models. Such
models can predict the future behavior, e.g., in the form of water levels and solute concentrations, in specified subsurface domains. The relevant domains of interest here are aquifers and the unsaturated zone. So far, we have been
focussing only on conceptual and mathematical models. We have repeatedly emphasized, and we shall do so again in Chap. 11, that optimal management decisions should not be made unless we use models to predict the consequences
of implementing the proposed decision alternatives. By analyzing these consequences, or forecasts, we can make sure that constraints are not violated, and that the optimal decision alternative is, indeed, selected. Such forecasts can be made by solving the mathematical models that simulate the behavior in the domain of interest, in response to the implementation of various proposed alternative decisions. Unfortunately, although analytical solutions are preferable, they are seldom possible for problems of practical
interest, because of the irregular boundaries of the problem domain, the heterogeneity of the domain, with respect to its physical parameters, and, sometimes, the nonlinearity of the equations. Instead, computer-based numerical methods are used in practice for solving (or ‘running’) these models.

The issue of contamination of water in the subsurface was introduced in Subs. In that subsection, we have also listed a number of the more common sources of subsurface contamination. Our objective in this chapter is to develop complete mathematical models that describe the transport in the subsurface of contaminants dissolved in the water that occupies the void space, or part of it. These dissolved
species determine groundwater quality. We use here the term ‘transport’ as an abbreviation for ‘movement, storage, and transformations’, with the term transformations’ indicating changes in concentrations of dissolved chemical
species as consequences of chemical reactions, and interphase transfers, such as dissolution of the solid matrix, and precipitation. Such transformations, which appear in the mass balance equation for a chemical species as source or sink terms, are also discussed in this Book.

Optimization could be defined rather simply as culmination of an improvement process. Optimization problems are encountered more or less frequently, in almost
every scientific field (e.g., Floudas and Pardalos. Schwefel, quoted by Michalewicz , puts it in the following way:
“There is scarcely a modern journal, whether on engineering, economics, management, mathematics, physics, or the social sciences, in which the concept optimization’ is missing from the subject index, If one abstracts from all specialist points of view, the recurring problem is to select a better or best
(according to Leibniz, optimal) alternative from among a number of possible states of affairs.”

This Book presents a hybrid approach to analysis nitrate pollution based on an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Genetic Algorithm (GA). This makes it possible to compute the amount of nitrate in different time-scales easily without employment of confusing complicated mathematical equations. Generally, the results of the current research could be useful in management purposes and also for beneficiaries of groundwater. Isfahan province, located in a dry region of Iran, was chosen as the study area.

The objective of this book is to present the methodology and procedure for constructing complete conceptual and mathematical models of two types of problems: (1) groundwater flow, and (2) groundwater contaminant transport, both in the saturated and unsaturated zones. The construction of such models, however, is not the ultimate goal. In fact, these models are used as essential tools for the planning and management for sustainable use of
groundwater resources. This use of models is based on our belief that the physical reality can be represented by mathematical models, albeit with acceptable
approximations. In this chapter, we examine the concept, process, and limitations of modeling.
Accordingly, this chapter discusses the role of groundwater in the hydrological cycle, and presents aquifers as a part of water resources systems. The objectives of water resources management are then presented. In view of the
complex hydrological, environmental, and economic constraints, these objectives may be in conflict with each other. Alternative management schemes often have to be evaluated and compared by solving models that can simulate
the various scenarios. The evaluation of water resources systems, particularly groundwater systems with complex objectives, is possible today, primarily due to the advancement of computer systems since the 1970s. The advent of new computer technologies and capabilities has allowed for the development of more complex mathematical models. An aquifer is a porous medium domain. Hence, flow through the void space of a porous medium is involved in all (physical and, hence, mathematical) models of groundwater systems. Since it is neither feasible nor required to
model the detailed flow inside the pore space, we shall show and discuss how this flow and other phenomena of transport (e.g., solute transport) are modeled without information on the details of the pore space geometry.

Construction in water is a difficult and dangerous job that requires a dry working surface. Cofferdams are one type of temporary structures designed to keep water and/or soil from the execution of construction at a site, so that the permanent facility/structure can be constructed in water (Anderson 2001). A cofferdam should have waterproof walls more than 1 m higher than the maximum water level to ensure that water does not enter the opposite side. Cofferdam design and construction involve the consideration of the structure, local soil and water conditions, often construction offshore, and the possibility of severe weather during construction. The hydrostatic force of the water and the dynamic force due to currents and waves must be considered in the design.

The word “water” comes from Old English “wæter,” from Proto-Germanic watar (source also of Old Saxon watar, Old Frisian wetir, Dutch water, Old High German wazzar, German Wasser, Old Norse vatn, Gothic wato “water”), from PIE wod-or, suffixed form of root wed-… “water; wet.” Water is essential for life. With two thirds of the earth’s surface covered by water and the human body consisting of 75% of it, it is evidently clear that water is one of the prime elements responsible for life on earth. However, Contrary to the past, our...

Sediments are solid, fragmented particulate matter (silt, sand, and gravel), which are transported and deposited by physical processes such as water, wind, and ice. Sediments consist of loose, solid particles originating from the weathering and erosion of rocks, or chemical precipitation from solution, including secretion by organisms in water.

The condition in which all available pore space in soil or rock is occupied by water (or, in some circumstances, by another liquid). Soil moisture beneath the ground surface occurs in two zones: the unsaturated and saturated zones. The unsaturated zone has pores, between soil grains and cavities that are either partly or not filled by water. The underlying saturated (or phreatic) zone has spaces that are completely filled with water. The interface between the two zones is the groundwater table.

Precipitation or melt water enters the ground and percolates downwards under the influence of gravity until it reaches either an impermeable layer or a preexisting saturated layer leading to a rise in the water table. In the saturated zone, the water then moves laterally with the groundwater. Movement in sandy or gravelly soils may be of the order of millimeters per day but in clay soils movement may be slower (Alley et al. 1999). Soil water patterns...

Water is recognized as the most important element for economic and social development in developed and less developed countries around the world. Given that there is an inconsistency between the rainfall seasons and high water demand in arid and semi-arid regions, groundwater resources are the primary water source to satisfy various water demands. Surface water reservoirs are constructed to collect and store water during seasons of high rainfall and river flow when there is relatively lower water uses. Due to water-related problems around the world and the potential for severe drought conditions in the future, proper design of new water reservoirs as well as the utilization and conservation of current reservoirs are very crucial. A...

Percolation can be defined as the flow of fluids through a porous media (filter). Infiltration rate may be defined as the meters per unit time of the entry of water into the soil surface regardless of the types or values of forces or gradients. Water entry into the soil is caused by matric and gravitational forces. Infiltration normally refers to the downward movement (Kirkham 2004).