Anthony Koschmann

OBJECTIVES To estimate drivers of concussions during punt kick returns in football and consider rule change incentives to potentially reduce concussions. STUDY DESIGN The design of the study was to analyze concussions during punt returns. METHODS National Football League data of all punts from the 2016 and 2017 seasons are examined using propensity score matching (PSM) to estimate the causal effect of punt returns on the likelihood of a player concussion. RESULTS The PSM logistic regression estimates that the odds of a concussion increase 8.31, or are 731% higher, when a punt is returned versus not returned (log-odds b = 2.118, P < .001). Punt distance increases punt return likelihood, but time left in the game and the yard line where the punt is received reduces punt return likelihood. CONCLUSIONS Returning a punt substantially increases the risks of a concussion. To reduce concussions in football, incentives should encourage punters to not make the punt returnable and encourage punt returners to not return the punt.

Abstract This research examines the marketplace performance of ingredient brand alliances (IBAs). In this type of alliance, a component or feature of a primary or focal brand is branded using a secondary brand. Performance is affected by both the primary and secondary brands, each of which has functional and emotional associations. Drawing on concept combination theory, the authors examine congruent and incongruent effects in both associations as a means of achieving synergy in the brand. While the extant literature largely focuses on consumer perceptions of ingredient brand alliance products as an outcome, the authors examine the market share and revenues for 126 ingredient brand alliances in 49 product categories of consumer packaged goods over 14 years. A generalized estimation equation shows that, on average, each brand's associations have positive main effects on ingredient brand alliance performance. However, congruent associations (such as the perceived functional associations of both brands) attenuate these effects, while incongruent associations (the perceived functional association of one brand with the perceived emotional association of another) were not significant. The article concludes with a simulation showing that managers can do better by picking a partner brand whose associations are more incongruent, rather than merely what seems to be the strongest partner on both associations.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine whether line extensions (modified brands) create their own loyalties or induce variety-seeking within the brand. Prior research has explored how the branded house strategy (i.e. multiple products bearing the same brand name) retains customers from competing brands. However, this research investigates loyalty within the brand by comparing loyalty and variety-seeking rates of modified brands. Design/methodology/approach Markov chains examine behavioral loyalty and switching rates of panel households in the USA over several quarters for two family brands of carbonated beverages. Emphasis is placed on the consumers who purchase the upper median of volume (heavy half) and constitute a disproportionate amount of brand’s sales (86 per cent of the volume). Findings Three propositions find that loyalty rates are high among modified brands with little switching to other lines within the brand. Further, loyalty and switch to rates are highest for...

Marketers believe that competition and brand loyalty create a tug-of-war: consumers like competition since competing firms must innovate, improve quality, and lower prices, leading to increased consumer welfare. Brands prefer to minimize competition, as innovation requires costly development while competing on price reduces profitability. Rather, brands quasi-compete, using differentiated offerings to compete yet sustain profitability. We examine marketing’s dominant logic of the service-centered model of exchange (Vargo and Lusch 2004) by looking at brand loyal household purchasing patterns between two substantive brands. With the Cola Wars as our context, we use Markov chain switching probabilities of panel data for two product categories. Across three levels of the branded house (parent brand, category brand, and variety brand), we find that at all three levels between 90% and 95% of households that are brand loyal in one quarter continue to be loyal at each level in subsequent quarters. Despite the commonly held belief that brands compete, we find that brands coexist, competing at the consumption fringes (non-heavy users) instead.

Brand loyalty is often perceived as synonymous with the flagship brand or even parent brand through consumer surveys. Yet, many successful parent brands have extended into new product categories or as line extensions within the same product category. Using panel data, we show that what appears to be brand loyalty is really line loyalty: consumers that are brand loyal at face value are truly loyal to a line extension within the brand, in some cases even more loyal than the flagship brand. The implication for marketing academics is that the construct of brand loyalty should be redefined for line extension loyalty, and that marketing managers should utilize line extension loyalty switching as measure for line extension success.

Abstract Prior research indicates that consumers may base their retail decisions (e.g., store choice, purchase quantity) on price image, which has been defined as consumer perceptions “of the aggregate price level of a retailer” (Hamilton and Chernev 2013, p. 2). The present research shows that consumers associate different price images not only with specific retailers, but more broadly with various store formats — such as grocery stores, convenience stores, and specialty stores. Six studies provide evidence that store-format price image exerts influence on consumer price expectations and store choice decisions, and that these retailer categorization effects are distinct from the effects of retailer price image.

This research examines the contract year phenomenon in a new context, by evaluating player performance relative to other players, rather than the same player over time. Since ordinary least-squares (OLS) methods assume independent observations, results may be biased as player performance is dependent on other players. As such, a Bayesian approach to allow for non-independence among player performance is used to evaluate players in contract years relative to their peers. Using novel performance data of National Football League (NFL) players and controlling for player salary, position, experience, and team effects, the results show that contract year players under-perform relative to players not in a contract year. Furthermore, increasing salary exhibits a greater negative effect on the performance of contract year players. The findings suggest managers would get more performance from players, on average, by not having players play during a contract year. Subscribe to JASM

Purpose This study aims to question the conventional wisdom that brands compete for customers, especially in mature industries such as soft drinks. Rather than engaging in price wars or promotion wars, brands coexist in the markets by focusing on their own brand loyal customers. Design/methodology/approach Consumer panel data of carbonated beverages are examined using Markov chains to measure switching between two brands: Coke and Pepsi. Switching rates are conducted for all Coke households (n = 10,474) and Pepsi households (n = 7,227). This is further examined with respect to heavy half (upper median) consumers of each brand who make up approximately 86 per cent of volume purchases. Findings Households that made a majority of their purchase volume in either Coke or Pepsi products stayed with their preferred brands in subsequent quarters: 85 to 97 per cent of households. These findings are validated at all levels of the brand architecture (family brands, product brands and modified ...

Purpose This study aims to question the conventional wisdom that brands compete for customers, especially in mature industries such as soft drinks. Rather than engaging in price wars or promotion wars, brands coexist in the markets by focusing on their own brand loyal customers. Design/methodology/approach Consumer panel data of carbonated beverages are examined using Markov chains to measure switching between two brands: Coke and Pepsi. Switching rates are conducted for all Coke households (n = 10,474) and Pepsi households (n = 7,227). This is further examined with respect to heavy half (upper median) consumers of each brand who make up approximately 86 per cent of volume purchases. Findings Households that made a majority of their purchase volume in either Coke or Pepsi products stayed with their preferred brands in subsequent quarters: 85 to 97 per cent of households. These findings are validated at all levels of the brand architecture (family brands, product brands and modified ...