Judith Zaichkowsky

... Defending your brand against imitation: Consumer behavior, marketing strategies, and legal issues. Post a Comment. ... SUBJECT(S): Brand name products; Consumer behavior; Trademarks; Industrial property; Marketing; Imitation; Management; Law and legislation; Case studies. ...

The measurement of abstract constructs is essential to predicting behaviour. Predicting consumer behaviour is at the heart of marketing. If a manager can predict who is their best market; what advertising messages will be responded to; and a customer’s sensitivity to price, it is likely that company can be very profitable. That is unless, of course, they fail to keep their costs in control. The method for measuring abstract constructs is indeed different than measuring concrete constructs such as price paid, quantity consumed, or time spent in a store. These measures are definite and there is no need to gather more than one measure. When dealing with a concept one cannot see or touch, the process to gather data on that concept measure becomes more complex. As academics our role is to create knowledge as well as to disseminate it. In creating knowledge, we spend a great deal of time criticising each other’s work, writing, and methods. This task of constructive criticism is important to better the knowledge created, fill in missing pieces, and to ensure the rigour of our thoughts and research studies. Generally we do not know our flaws until others point them out to us. Academics must do constructive criticism, which is our role. Professor Rossiter proposes that more widely cited methods of measurement creation are not as good as his own. He documents his 2002 IJRM paper as having over 1500 citations (Rossiter, 2002). By contrast the other papers about measurement he refers to: 1) Churchill (1979) has about 12,000 citations and 2) Nunnally (1967/78/94) has over 70,000 citations (according to Google Scholar as of July 2015). The differences in the number of citations are likely due to the time of publication, name of the publication, and of course the size of the audience. Many more people study psychology than marketing. Given that Professor Rossiter developed a scale to measure “Children’s Attitudes Toward TV Commercials” (Rossiter, 1977), he has first-hand knowledge of the complexities of abstract measurement. I, too, have developed a widely used measure of “Involvement” (Zaichkowsky, 1985, 1986) and am familiar with the issues of good processes in capturing what you cannot see. The issues that professor Rossiter raises with respect to Churchill (1979), I certainly agree with. I seem to roll my eyes when people talk about ‘purifying’ the measure. In writing my own dissertation I found Churchill (1979) quite cursory and not ‘enough’ for my own needs in thinking about how I was to capture ‘Involvement’. So I turned to Nunnally (1967) and found inspiration in reading that source to create my own processes of scale development to fit my particular needs. My needs were dictated by how the marketing literature defined and used the concept of ‘Involvement’. However I realised, quite quickly after my dissertation was published, there were some shortcomings in my work. These shortcomings had to do with the length of the scale (20 items) and the ability of a shorter scale to capture the same concept. I then developed a shorter scale (Zaichkowsky, 1994) which now had 10 items or was 50 per cent shorter than the original. The time to answer the scale could be less than 10 s. These 10 items were further balanced to be five cognitive items and five emotional items. The 1994 scale is a much improved scale which still completely captures the original concept of ‘involvement’, but allows one to see what kind of involvement or balance exists between emotions and cognitions. Given that the ten item scale can be completed so quickly and takes little space on any questionnaire, it always amazes me that so many researchers do not use the whole scale but pick and choose a subset of items off the top of their head with no pretesting or checking for reliability to the ten items. What can I say? Not everyone has great training and/or pays attention to such detail. We know longer scales are not always better (Zaichkowsky, 1990). However shorter scales or single item measures are not always better than longer or multi-item measures. What is developed and used as a measure depends totally on what the abstract construct is to be measured and its context of use. The issues related to points in Professor Rossiter’s original stance and paper are clearly detailed in a reply to his 2002 IJRM by Professor Adamantios Diamantopoulos (2005). I do not wish to whack a dead horse in this reply to Professor Rossiter, so I urge you to read Professor Diamantopoulos’s reply and critique to the C-OAR-SE method. There is little more that I can add to that discussion. * Tel.: 1-604-731-1219; fax: 1-778-782-5122. E-mail address: zaichkow@sfu.ca.

ABSTRACT-The distinctive identity of a brand has enormous commercial importance. When a competitor copies that identity with a cheaper inferior product, it can jeopardize the heavy investment in creation and design of products. The identification of the original versus the ...

The question of whether art film lovers have different movie consumption patterns than commercial film audiences is examined in this study. Art film audiences are found to warrant marketing attention because they are more committed to movie attendance, have a more favorable attitude towards movies in general, and are more tolerant towards movie theater conditions than commercial film audiences.

The distinctive identity of a brand has enormous commercial importance. When a competitor copies that identity with a cheaper inferior product, it can jeopardize the heavy investment in creating and designing products. The identification of the original versus a plagiarized knockoff is a critical issue in the marketplace. However; even when the identity is clear; a remaining issue is whether consumers are willing to pay a premium price for the original product. We use conjoint analysis to investigate the identification and valuation of an original vs. a copy. The willingness to pay for the original depends on the competence or knowledge of the consumer. We suggest ways of identifying “trade dress” by distinguishing among the utilitarian, systemic or symbolic aspects of a product.

Two experiments were conducted to analyze neurophysiological activation, response latency, and actual brand choice concerning novel and familiar brands. The results show that (1) the choice of novel brands (compared to the choice of familiar brands) is preceded by increased activation of both the cingulate gyrus and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, as measured by a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study; (2) novel brands are associated with longer choice response latency than familiar brands; and (3) positive mood enhances response latency of choosing novel brands compared to familiar brands.

The -Art of Marketing‖ is an approach that incorporates various principles of art into marketing in order to appeal to the senses of consumers. By using aesthetics, marketers can give people pleasure through activating emotions. This paper focuses on the art of marketing in a retail store environment and how an artistic approach can aid retailers in understanding and motivating the consumer. The -Art of Marketing‖ also explains why consumers will continue to frequent brick-and-mortar stores over other alternatives.

A longer exposure time generally improves individuals’ ability to recognize faces. The current research investigates whether this effect varies between genders and whether it is influenced by the gender of the exposed faces. Based on a set of four experimental studies, we advance our knowledge of face recognition, gender, gender distribution of exposed faces, and exposure time in three main ways. First, the results reveal that women are more likely than men to suffer from a decrease in face recognition ability due to a lower exposure time. Second, the findings show that when exposure time is short (vs. long) women recognize a larger proportion of same gender faces and also recognize a larger proportion of same gender faces as compared with the proportion of same gender faces recognized by men. Third, findings reveal that when individuals are only exposed to same gender faces, women recognize more faces than men regardless whether exposure time is short, or long. In short, the findin...

R esearchers of consumer behavior have historically developed a number of complex theories in the attempt to explain and predict the behavior of the con-sumer (eg, Bettman 1979; Engel, Kollat, and Blackwell 1978; Howard and Sheth 1969). These theories propose that ...

Purpose This paper aims to document how AI has changed the way consumers make decisions and propose how that change impacts services marketing, service research and service management. Design/methodology/approach A review of the literature, documentation of sales and customer service experiences support the evolution of bot-driven consumer decision-making, proposing the bot-driven service platform as a key component of the service experience. Findings Today the focus is on convenience, the less time and effort, the better. The authors propose that AI has taken convenience to a new level for consumers. By using bots as their service of choice, consumers outsource their decisions to algorithms, hence give little attention to traditional consumer decision-making models and brand emphasis. At the moment, this is especially true for low involvement types of decisions, but high involvement decisions are on the cusp of delegating to AI. Therefore, management needs to change how they view c...

ABSTRACT This research explored comparisons between matched pairs of husbands and wives on a system of strategies used to do family food shopping. Generally, husbands and wives were similar in strategies which related to time management, store loyalty, and in-store shopping. There were notable anomalies in the conceptualization of some of the strategies, as well as significant differences in the use of task management strategies to prepare for food shopping and in the importance of various store characteristics. Suggestions for research are based on extending the role theory and systems approach in studying family food shopping.

... Judith Lynne Zaichkowsky is an Associate Professor of Marketing at Simon Fraser University, British Columbia ... A fresh sample of fifty-two business stu-dents rated a print ad for Lean Machine Exercise equipment, a radio ad for Pepsi Cola, and a television ad for Edy's ice cream. ...

Purpose – This study aims to investigate the random collection of items for gifting which are stored in one’s home in a special place. Traditional gift-giving models suggest gift givers buy gifts for certain recipients on certain occasions. This study ' s journey into gift storage finds that some gift-giving practices are initially acquisition-less, recipient-less and/or occasion-less. Design/methodology/approach – Based on a convenience sample of 111, the main functions and motivations for gift storage are described. From a free elicitation process of gift-closet attributes, a first account of the symbolic meanings that gift storage is embedded in is provided. Findings – Seventy-seven per cent per cent of the sample had a gift closet where they stored gifts for which either the occasion or the recipient was not known at the time of acquisition. According to these gift-closet owners, the main purposes of gift closets are convenience, thrift and to have a place for surplus or sho...

Data from national brand manufacturers suggest they are more willing to take legal action against other independent manufacturers than against retailers when they think their trademark brands have been infringed. Imitation by other independent manufacturers prompts national ...

Preferences for similarly designed consumer products, evaluated blind and branded and also with and without prices, were tested in a consumer setting. The consumer's perceptual experience led to preference of the well-crafted high-priced option. This preference was enhanced by ...

... Husbands seem increasingly willing to take on food shopping (Maret and Finlay 1984). ... Husbands who share this task generally have not been socialized to do so (Maret and Finlay 1988; Shelton 1992). Husbands may make very different judgments when food shopping. ...

The conceptualization of the Personal Involvement Inventory was a context-free measure applicable to involve-ment with products, with advertisements, and with purchase situations. The empirical work to develop this measure was mainly validated with respect to product categories. ...

... It is proposed that a systematic research stream that isolates and measures the impact of the antecedents on involvement levels would be a major step in understanding how advertisers might use this concept for more effective communication strategies. ...

... cultures with different involvement levels and hence different strategic implications for fashion retailers across ... the consistency of each student's responses to the twenty items regarding a product ... support to the use of this instrument for cross-cultural consumer behaviour research ...

Young and Rubicam's (Y&R) BrandAsset Valuator® (BAV), commonly used to assess brand equity in consumer markets, was applied to assess the brand health of an industrial B2B supplier. Customers were asked questions about perceived esteem, relevance, knowledge and differentiation of the company to find its strengths and weaknesses. The results were then plotted to reveal the overall customer perception of