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The evolution in animals of a first possession convention, in which individuals retain what they are the first to acquire, has often been taken as a foundation for the evolution of human ownership institutions. However, among humans,... more
The evolution in animals of a first possession convention, in which individuals retain what they are the first to acquire, has often been taken as a foundation for the evolution of human ownership institutions. However, among humans, individuals actually only seldom retain an item they have acquired from the environment, instead typically transferring what they possess to other members of the community, to those in command, or to those who hold a contractual title. This paper presents a novel game-theoretic model of the evolution of ownership institutions as rules governing resource transfers. Integrating existing findings, the model contributes a new perspective on the emergence of communal transfers among hominin large game hunters around 200,000 years ago, of command ownership among sedentary humans in the millennia prior to the transition to agriculture, and of titled property ownership around 5,500 years ago. Since today’s property institutions motivate transfers through the promise of future returns, the analysis presented here suggests that these institutions may be placed under considerable pressure should resources become significantly constrained.
Theories of ownership have long focussed on the institutions governing resource stocks such as land, and largely neglected the ownership of resource flows such as the crops that flow from that land. Originating among early modern legal... more
Theories of ownership have long focussed on the institutions governing resource stocks such as land, and largely neglected the ownership of resource flows such as the crops that flow from that land. Originating among early modern legal scholars, the assumption that the paradigm form of ownership was of land has been inherited by later theorists. The 'tragedy of the commons' thesis, for example, conflates the absence of stock ownership with the absence of flow ownership, and several commons scholars have now started to move away from a stock-centric conception of ownership. The same assumption has also been inherited by theorists applying Heinsohn and Steiger's 'property economics' to theories of degrowth. Here, I recast their theory to include ownership of flows as well as stocks, answering critics who point out that their theory cannot account for unsecured debts. This recasting places greater focus on the different ways in which ownership institutions not only assign an owner to a resource, but also motivate the transfer of resources between individuals. This prompts a new way to frame a key question for theorists of degrowth: in a nongrowing economy where fewer transfers can be motivated by the likelihood of receiving returns on loans, will this result in more possessive behaviours, in more communal ownership norms of reciprocity, or in more command ownership through coercion and status? Existing theory, focussed on stocks, groups these different institutions together as 'private' or 'nonproperty' ownership. This article suggests that disambiguation of the different 'nonproperty' institutions that govern the ownership and transfer of resource flows is key to better understanding the political and institutional implications of degrowth.

Depuis longtemps, les théories de la possession ont été centrées sur les institutions régissant les stocks de ressources telles que la terre, et ont largement négligé la possession des flux de ressources tels que les récoltes qui en découlent. D'origine parmi les premiers juristes modernes, la supposition que le paradigme de la possession était la possession de la terre a été héritée par les théoriciens qui ont suivi. La thèse de la «tragédie des biens communs», par exemple, confond l'absence de la possession des stocks avec l'absence de possession des flux, et maintenant plusieurs chercheurs des biens communs ont commencé à s'éloigner d'une conception stock-centrique de la possession. La même supposition a également été héritée par des théoriciens appliquant «l'economie de la propriété» de Heinsohn et Steiger aux théories de la décroissance. Ici, je reformule leur théorie pour inclure la propriété des flux ainsi que des stocks, en répondant aux critiques qui font remarquer que leur théorie ne peut pas prendre en compte les dettes non garanties. Cette reformulation met davantage l'accent sur les différentes manières dont les institutions de possession attribuent non seulement un possesseur à une ressource, mais motivent également le transfert de ressources entre individus. Ceci suggère une nouvelle façon de poser une question clé pour les théoriciens de la décroissance: dans une économie qui ne croît pas, où moins de transferts peuvent être motivés par la probabilité de recevoir des rendements sur des prêts, cela entraînera-t-il des comportements plus possessifs, des normes de réciprocité relatives à la possession communale, ou plus de possession de commande par la coercition et le statut? La théorie actuelle, axée sur les stocks, regroupe ces différentes institutions en tant que «privés» ou «non propriétaires». Cet article suggère que la désambiguïsation des différentes institutions de «non-propriété» qui régissent la possession et le transfert des flux de ressources est essentielle pour mieux comprendre les implications politiques et institutionnelles de la décroissance.

Las teorías sobre la posesión se han centrado durante mucho tiempo en las instituciones que gobiernan las recursos stock, como la tierra, y han descuidado en gran medida la posesión de los flujos de recursos, como la cosecha que fluye de esa tierra. Originada entre los primeros eruditos legales modernos, la suposición de que la forma paradigmática de posesión era de la tierra ha sido heredada por teóricos posteriores. La tesis de la 'tragedia de los bienes comunes', por ejemplo, confund la ausencia de posesión de stocks con la ausencia de posesión de flujo, y ahora varios investigadores de los bienes comune han comenzado a alejarse de una concepción de posesión centrada en stocks. La misma suposición también ha sido heredada por los teóricos que aplican la "economía de la propiedad" de Heinsohn y Steiger a las teorías del decrecimiento. Aquí, reformulo su teoría para incluir la propiedad de los flujos así como las stocks, respondiendo a los críticos que señalan que su teoría no puede explicar las préstamos no aseguradas. Esta reformulación pone mayor énfasis en las diferentes maneras en que las instituciones de posesión no solo asignan un propietario a un recurso, sino que también motivan la transferencia de recursos entre individuos. Esto genera una nueva forma de formular una pregunta clave para los teóricos del decrecimiento: en una economía que no está en crecimiento, donde menos transferencias pueden ser motivadas por la probabilidad de recibir rendimientos de los préstamos, ¿esto resultará en comportamientos más posesivos, en normas de propiedad más comunitarias de reciprocidad, o más propiedad del mando a través de la compulción y el status? La teoría actual, centrada en las acciones, agrupa a estas diferentes instituciones como propiedad 'privada' o 'no propiedad'. Este artículo sugiere que la desambiguación de las diferentes instituciones 'no privadas' que gobiernan la posesión y la transferencia de flujos de recursos es clave para comprender mejor las implicaciones políticas e institucionales del decrecimiento.
Under what circumstances are interest-bearing loans compatible with an economy without much growth? The question is becoming increasingly important given a tendency towards declining growth in industrialised economies and increasing... more
Under what circumstances are interest-bearing loans compatible with an economy without much growth? The question is becoming increasingly important given a tendency towards declining growth in industrialised economies and increasing evidence that continued growth is incompatible with environmental sustainability. Previous theoretical work suggests that when interest-bearing loans compound, this results in exponentially growing debts that are impossible to repay in the absence of economic growth. We here examine ten historical cases to assess support for this finding. We find that interest-bearing loans have typically resulted in unpayable debts in these non- and slow-growing economies. We further identify four broad category of measures to prevent or alleviate the problem of unpayable debts, and show how they have been employed in the past. Our Appendix compiles sources of debt regulation from across the world over five millennia.
Theories of ownership have long focussed on the institutions governing resource stocks such as land, and largely neglected the ownership of resource flows such as the crops that flow from that land. Originating among early modern legal... more
Theories of ownership have long focussed on the institutions governing resource stocks such as land, and largely neglected the ownership of resource flows such as the crops that flow from that land. Originating among early modern legal scholars, the assumption that the paradigm form of ownership was of land has been inherited by later theorists. The 'tragedy of the commons' thesis, for example, conflates the absence of stock ownership with the absence of flow ownership, and several commons scholars have now started to move away from a stock-centric conception of ownership. The same assumption has also been inherited by theorists applying Heinsohn and Steiger's 'property economics' to theories of degrowth. Here, I recast their theory to include ownership of flows as well as stocks, answering critics who point out that their theory cannot account for unsecured debts. This recasting places greater focus on the different ways in which ownership institutions not only ...