Ethelbert Kari
University of Botswana, African Languages and Literature, Faculty Member
- Professor Ethelbert Emmanuel Kari is a Nigerian-born linguist. He obtained his BA and MA degrees in linguistics from ... moreProfessor Ethelbert Emmanuel Kari is a Nigerian-born linguist. He obtained his BA and MA degrees in linguistics from the University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria, in 1991 and 1996 respectively, and his doctoral degree in linguistics from the Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, Japan, in 2003. He was an academic member of staff of the University of Port Harcourt, where he taught linguistics in the Department of Linguistics and Communication Studies from 1995-2013. He is currently teaching linguistics at the University of Botswana, Botswana. Some of his publications are Degema (1997), Ogbronuagum: The Bukuma Language (2000), Clitics in Degema: A Meeting Point of Phonology, Morphology, and Syntax (2003), A Reference Grammar of Degema (2004), Degema-English Dictionary with English Index (2008) and Morphology: An Introduction to the Study of Word Structure (2015).edit
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This paper discusses restrictions observed in the attachment of verbal extensions to all verb bases in Degema. Kari (1995) discusses verbal extensions in Degema focusing on the number, underlying forms, and phonological rules that derive... more
This paper discusses restrictions observed in the attachment of verbal extensions to all verb bases in Degema. Kari (1995) discusses verbal extensions in Degema focusing on the number, underlying forms, and phonological rules that derive the surface forms of these extensions, but does not discuss the factors that permit or prohibit the attachment of each of the extensions to all verb bases in the language. In later works such as Kari (2003, 2008), Kari claims that reference is made directly or indirectly to semantics as a possible factor responsible for the prohibition of the causative, reflexive, reciprocal, and habitual extensions from attaching to certain verb bases. By examining a number of verb bases, the primary goal of this paper is to establish the range of factors that permit or prohibit verbal extensions from attaching to all verb bases in Degema. The findings of this paper show that phonological and syntactic factors, especially valency, in addition to the semantic character of verbs, play a crucial role in permitting or prohibiting the attachment of these extensions to all verbs bases in Degema.
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Endocliticization, unlike procliticization and encliticization, is a rare phenomenon which is often considered non-existent, except as a result of something else in the grammar. Given the assumption that words are more internally coherent... more
Endocliticization, unlike procliticization and encliticization, is a rare phenomenon which is often considered non-existent, except as a result of something else in the grammar. Given the assumption that words are more internally coherent than sentences, and that the rules of syntax should not change the morphological structure of words as they would of sentences, endocliticization is considered a negation of the very basis of stronger versions of the Lexical Integrity Hypothesis (LIH). A crucial question about endocliticization, and a basic problem with the phenomenon, which tends to give the LIH some universal validity, is how does the clitic – a non-integral part of the morphology of words – get to be located within its host, given that cliticization (a syntactic phenomenon) is always considered an external and not an internal attachment of morphemes? This paper examines the phenomenon of endocliticization and its implications for the LIH, drawing insights from Degema – a Niger-Congo language spoken in southeastern Nigeria. The paper is divided into six sections. Section 1 is the introduction; Section 2 discusses cliticization with emphasis on endocliticization; Section 3 examines some formulations of the LIH; Section 4 considers the implications of endocliticization for the LIH; Section 5 discusses the acquisition of Degema subject clitics, while Section 6 concludes the discussion.
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Abstract This article discusses the factative and perfect markers in Degema and Kalaḅarị. The research is motivated by the observed similarities and differences in the properties/behaviour of these markers in both languages. The article... more
Abstract This article discusses the factative and perfect markers in Degema and Kalaḅarị. The research is motivated by the observed similarities and differences in the properties/behaviour of these markers in both languages. The article notes that the factative and perfect markers are monosyllabic in both languages, and that the perfect marker in Kalaḅarị is opaque to vowel harmony because it is prosodically independent. With reference to morphology, it notes that whereas the Degema factative and perfect markers are clitics, their Kalaḅarị counterparts are words. On a morphosyntactic level, the article observes that unlike in Degema, the factative marker in Kalaḅarị does not occur within monomorphemic stems because it is not a clitic. It is further restricted by syllable structure. The findings of this article validate the fact that although languages may have elements with similar features, such elements may not pattern in the same way, and that differences in patterning make each human language unique.
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Ogbronuagum is a central Delta language spoken by about 12,000 people in the present Degema Local Government Area of Rivers State of Nigeria. It is spoken by the Agum (Bukuma) Community. The sketch, which is the first attempt at providing... more
Ogbronuagum is a central Delta language spoken by about 12,000 people in the present Degema Local Government Area of Rivers State of Nigeria. It is spoken by the Agum (Bukuma) Community. The sketch, which is the first attempt at providing a fairly comprehensive description of Ogbronuagum, is divided into six sections. Section one re-examines the phonology as decribed by Alex (1987), and establishes more consonants. In section two, the morphology of the language is discussed. The noun class system as established by Alex (1987) is also re-examined and more genders than she established are found. The morphology of verbs, tense aspect and modality, and nominal modifiers are treated in some detail. Section three is concerned with syntax. Here different noun phrase constructions and phenomena such as concord, co-ordination, subordination, relativisation, serial verb constructions, focus and cliticisation are discussed. Section four is a sample text with interlinear translation. In section five, the history of the Agum people is presented. The sketch concludes with a lexicon.
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Many practical difficulties besetting attempts to distinguish 'inflection' from 'derivation' have been noted and discussed in the literature. These difficulties stem from the... more
Many practical difficulties besetting attempts to distinguish 'inflection' from 'derivation' have been noted and discussed in the literature. These difficulties stem from the fact that the criteria so employed do not divide both phenomena neatly in all languages or sometimes even within a particular language. As will be shown in this paper, some of these criteria fail to clearly distinguish the two phenomena in Degema. Those that appear to unambiguously distinguish between inflection and derivation in Degema are syntax and productivity.
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This paper provides a descriptive analysis of cognate object constructions in Degema. Cognate object constructions refer to constructions that involve a verb and a cognate nominal object that is morphologically and semantically related to... more
This paper provides a descriptive analysis of cognate object constructions in Degema. Cognate object constructions refer to constructions that involve a verb and a cognate nominal object that is morphologically and semantically related to the verb. It distinguishes between eventive and referential cognate object constructions in Degema, observing that verbs in the former select only a cognate object whereas those in the latter can select a cognate object or a non-cognate object. The paper highlights asymmetries in cognate object constructions in Degema in the licensing of syntactic phenomena such as pronominalization, questions and topicalization. Furthermore, the paper classifies cognate object constructions in Degema into three semantic groups based on the semantic class of verbs from which these objects are derived. Consequently, it distinguishes constructions with activity, achievement and stative reading. In general, cognate objects in Degema are noted as clarifying or providing contrastive information about the activity or state of the verb from which they are derived and with which they collocate.
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... Kaki, Ethelbert E.: Further Evidence in Favour of the Affixal Origin of Degema Clitics Table 1. Forms of Degema Clitics Subject Clitics (Proclitics) 45 Number Person Forms ... e/e Plural 2nd ms/ma, э/а 3rd me/me, e/e, mi/mi, i/i... more
... Kaki, Ethelbert E.: Further Evidence in Favour of the Affixal Origin of Degema Clitics Table 1. Forms of Degema Clitics Subject Clitics (Proclitics) 45 Number Person Forms ... e/e Plural 2nd ms/ma, э/а 3rd me/me, e/e, mi/mi, i/i Non-subject Clitics (Enclitics) factativc Vn2) perfect te/te ...
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There are a number of reasons for compiling this dictionary. The first and most important reason is to document the word-stock of the Degema language that is gradually being replaced by words from other languages, especially Kalabari and... more
There are a number of reasons for compiling this dictionary. The first and most important reason is to document the word-stock of the Degema language that is gradually being replaced by words from other languages, especially Kalabari and English, before these words disappear completely, like many of them have. In doing this, great care has been taken to exclude unnecessary ‘foreign’ words. I am aware that there exist wordlists on Degema (Thomas and Williamson 1967, Elugbe 1989, and Kari 2003a and 2004) but these wordlists are too short in length and too limited in scope to be compared with this dictionary that contains more than 5,000 words and phrases. The second reason is to document this endangered language for posterity and to provide a source material for linguists and specialists in other fields who are interested in the Degema language or in human language. The third reason is to produce a material that will complement the already published A Reference Grammar of Degema written by the present author. It is sincerely hoped that should this age-long language cease to be spoken in the foreseeable future, this dictionary and A Reference Grammar of Degema would serve as a springboard for its revitalization, should future generations desire to speak it again after its death.
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1. Introduction 2. Definitions of Metathesis and Endoclitic 2.1. Definition of Metathesis 2.2. Definition of Endoclitic 3. Types of Clitics in Degema 4. Metathesis and Endoclitic in Degema 4.1. Factative Enclitic and Hosts Ending in... more
1. Introduction 2. Definitions of Metathesis and Endoclitic 2.1. Definition of Metathesis 2.2. Definition of Endoclitic 3. Types of Clitics in Degema 4. Metathesis and Endoclitic in Degema 4.1. Factative Enclitic and Hosts Ending in Vowels in Clause-final Position 4.2. Factative ...
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This book is the first grammatical sketch of Odual, a Central Delta language spoken in south-eastern Nigeria. The present study provides a sketch of the phonology, morphology and syntax of Odual. It also includes a lexicon of slightly... more
This book is the first grammatical sketch of Odual, a Central Delta language spoken in south-eastern Nigeria. The present study provides a sketch of the phonology, morphology and syntax of Odual. It also includes a lexicon of slightly more than 400 words. Among many interesting features of Odual discussed in this book are the pronominal system, which makes a formal distinction between inclusive and exclusive first person plural personal pronouns; a tense-aspect-modality-polarity system, which is marked mainly by affixal and tonal morphemes; nominal morphology in which nouns are classified into genders on the basis of semantically determined prefixes attached to the noun stem; complex sentences involving coordination and subordination, and an advanced tongue root vowel harmony system in which vowels are divided into two phonological sets distinguished by the size of the pharynx.
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Given the fact that the vocabulary of a language is constantly enriched to express new objects or concepts and actions or states of being, this article identifies and discusses the different strategies employed by Degema in the creation... more
Given the fact that the vocabulary of a language is constantly enriched to express new objects or concepts and actions or states of being, this article identifies and discusses the different strategies employed by Degema in the creation of words. The article notes that the word creation strategies employed by Degema include affixation, compounding, reduplication, borrowing, clipping and semantic extension. Affixation, compounding, borrowing and semantic extension are observed to be more widespread in the language than reduplication and clipping, which is more commonly found in proper nouns. In addition, the article notes that apart from having a meaning- distinctive function in homonymous lexemes, and the fact that deverbal nouns, such as agentives, gerundives and state nouns, seem to be characterised by the presence of a high-downstepped-high tone pattern which interacts with other word creation processes, tone plays a comparatively minor role in word creation in Degema. A significant observation that this article makes, and which has cross-linguistic implications, is that it is difficult to draw a neat line between inflection and derivation, as certain prefixes and circumfixes in Degema not only create new words, which is a derivational function, but also mark number, which is an inflectional function.
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This paper presents the first systematic study of tone in nouns and noun phrases in Degema. From a database of approximately 1,000 nouns, we find that nouns fall into three main tone patterns: /L-L/ (48% of nouns), /H-H/ (18%), and /L-HH/... more
This paper presents the first systematic study of tone in nouns and noun phrases in Degema. From a database of approximately 1,000 nouns, we find that nouns fall into three main tone patterns: /L-L/ (48% of nouns), /H-H/ (18%), and /L-HH/ (13%). This last case is theoretically important in that it includes cases where two separate H tones associate to the same tone-bearing unit, in violation of the Obligatory Contour Principle. In isolation, nouns are subject to two basic tone rules which alter their underlying forms: downstep is inserted between two final H’s (e.g. /H-H/ → [H↓H]), and H is inserted at the end of an all-low sequence (e.g. /L-L/ → [LH]). The combined effect of these rules is that virtually all nouns and noun phrases have a pitch change. Further, we catalog tonal effects found on nouns in 33 distinct modificational contexts within the noun phrase. We attribute these tonal effects to whether modifiers plus the noun form phonological phrases (φ) or phonological words (ɷ...
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The bulk of work on clitics has been centred on pronominal clitics in Indo-European and Slavic languages. What we have described in this work are clitics in Degema, an African language, specifically, a Niger-Congo language of the Delta... more
The bulk of work on clitics has been centred on pronominal clitics in Indo-European and Slavic languages. What we have described in this work are clitics in Degema, an African language, specifically, a Niger-Congo language of the Delta Edoid sub-family spoken in Nigeria. This book provides a detailed description of Degema clitics, noting that cliticization in Degema brings together different levels of grammatical description, such as phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics, including pragmatics. Chapters One to Three present background information, aspects of the Degema grammar that have direct relevance to the study of Degema clitics, and a review of literature on clitics respectively. Chapter Four examines the source of Degema clitics against the popular view that clitics developed from free lexical items or from syntactic categories that must appear without accent. It is shown that Degema clitics did not develop from free lexical items or from any syntactic category but from diachronic affixes at an earlier stage of the language. Chapter Five discusses two types of clitics that have featured in the literature on Degema linguistics. Also discussed is a surface endoclitic, which provides evidence against the claim that clitic attachment is always external to affixes. The interaction between clitics and the categories of tense, aspect and modality is discussed. It is noted that subject clitics change their forms to reflect the distinction between past and non-past, and affirmative and negative sentences. The discussions on Degema clitics and clitic doubling show that clitic doubling in Degema is not characterized by the presence of a preposition, as in Romance languages, or by topicality and specificity, as in Slavic languages, but by anaphoricity and emphasis and/or familiarity. The distinctions between inflection and derivation, and clitic-affix-word are examined in Chapter Six. It is shown that despite grey areas between inflection and derivation in Degema, both phenomena are clearly distinguished by syntax and productivity. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that Degema clitics differ from words. They also differ from affixes, their common diachronic origin notwithstanding. Chapter Seven shows that Degema (subject) clitics do not copy an actual constituent but the grammatical features of the subject noun phrase when it moves from its underlying position in the verb phrase to the specifier position of agreement phrase--a position that places it in juxtaposition to the subject clitic to make it possible for the copying of its features. It is also shown that Degema subject clitics are placed in second position not by clitic movement but by subject noun phrase movement--a syntactic operation that places the subject noun phrase in sentence initial position thus causing the subject clitic to occupy second position relative to the subject noun phrase. In Chapter Eight, Degema clitics are examined against Klavan’s five parameters, i.e. Clitic Identity (Parameter 1), Domain of Cliticization (Parameter 2), Initial/Final (Parameter 3), Before/After (Parameter 4), and Proclitic/Enclitic (Parameter 5), and found that these parameters, especially parameters 3 • 5 that appear to follow from a proper definition and establishment of the domain of cliticization, predict correctly for Degema. Finally, it is shown in Chapter Nine that, in addition to morphological uniformity and identification, the pragmatic factor relating to given vs. new information also determines whether or not thematic subjects can be suppressed in Degema.
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Affixes and clitics are bound morphemes that must attach to some independent linguistic units, and respond in the same way to certain phonological conditions. Despite these similarities, they differ to the extent that whereas affixes can... more
Affixes and clitics are bound morphemes that must attach to some independent linguistic units, and respond in the same way to certain phonological conditions. Despite these similarities, they differ to the extent that whereas affixes can attach to only one morphosyntactic category, clitics can attach to more than one. Thus affixes but not clitics are considered proper parts of words. This paper examines the behaviour of suffixes and enclitics in Degema, noting that suffixes and enclitics behave differently in respect of the degree of selection of the element to which they attach themselves, and in respect of whether they can see through host or stem-final consonants to copy the phonological features of a vowel in the stem or host. Specifically, the paper notes that the initial vowel of suffixes can see through stem-final consonants and assimilate to a vowel in the stem while also noting that the factative enclitic cannot see through host-final consonants to assimilate to a vowel in the host. The paper explains that assimilation is possible only when the vocalic part of the factative clitic is hopped over a host-final consonant and placed between the consonant and a vowel in the host. This behavioural asymmetry supports the claim that affixes but not clitics are proper parts of words.
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Abstract This article discusses the factative and perfect markers in Degema and Kalaḅarị. The research is motivated by the observed similarities and differences in the properties/behaviour of these markers in both languages. The article... more
Abstract This article discusses the factative and perfect markers in Degema and Kalaḅarị. The research is motivated by the observed similarities and differences in the properties/behaviour of these markers in both languages. The article notes that the factative and perfect markers are monosyllabic in both languages, and that the perfect marker in Kalaḅarị is opaque to vowel harmony because it is prosodically independent. With reference to morphology, it notes that whereas the Degema factative and perfect markers are clitics, their Kalaḅarị counterparts are words. On a morphosyntactic level, the article observes that unlike in Degema, the factative marker in Kalaḅarị does not occur within monomorphemic stems because it is not a clitic. It is further restricted by syllable structure. The findings of this article validate the fact that although languages may have elements with similar features, such elements may not pattern in the same way, and that differences in patterning make each human language unique.
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Diversity in African Languages contains a selection of revised papers from the 46th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, held at the University of Oregon. Most chapters focus on single languages, addressing diverse aspects of their... more
Diversity in African Languages contains a selection of revised papers from the 46th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, held at the University of Oregon. Most chapters focus on single languages, addressing diverse aspects of their phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, information structure, or historical development. These chapters represent nine different genera: Mande, Gur, Kwa, Edoid, Bantu, Nilotic, Gumuzic, Cushitic, and Omotic. Other chapters investigate a mix of languages and families, moving from typological issues to sociolinguistic and inter-ethnic factors that affect language and accent switching. Some chapters are primarily descriptive, while others push forward the theoretical understanding of tone, semantic problems, discourse related structures, and other linguistic systems. The papers on Bantu languages reflect something of the internal richness and continued fascination of the family for linguists, as well as maturation of research on the family. The distr...
Defi ning clitics has been attempted in the literature. Similarities between cliti-cs, affi xes, and words have been pointed out. Kari concluded that clitics are not affi xes. The question then is if Degema clitics are not affi xes, are... more
Defi ning clitics has been attempted in the literature. Similarities between cliti-cs, affi xes, and words have been pointed out. Kari concluded that clitics are not affi xes. The question then is if Degema clitics are not affi xes, are they words? This paper attempts to distinguish between clitics and words through their similarities and differences. In show-ing their differences, some criteria that have been discussed in the literature, especially those discussed in Zwicky (1985) will be highlighted.
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This paper2 provides an updated overview of the languages of Rivers State of Nigeria in respect of the number, linguistic classification and features of the languages, as well as the distribution of the languages across the 23 Local... more
This paper2 provides an updated overview of the languages of Rivers State of Nigeria in respect of the number, linguistic classification and features of the languages, as well as the distribution of the languages across the 23 Local Government Areas (LGAs)3 of the state. This is because the existing overviews contain little or no data on the linguistic features of the languages. It notes that Rivers State is a multilingual state in which 28 native or indigenous languages are spoken, and that the languages fall into two major sub-families (Benue-Congo and Ijoid) within the Niger-Congo phylum. With relevant data, the paper highlights and illustrates some of the interesting linguistic characteristics of the languages, which include advanced tongue root vowel harmony, noun classification via noun prefixes and noun classifiers, inclusiveexclusive distinction in personal pronouns, sex gender, verbal extensions, serial verb constructions and subject and/or object agreement marking. Further...
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This paper discusses parasynthesis, also known as circumfixation, in Degema. It highlights the fact that circumfixes are controversial not only because of the possibility to analyze them as discontinuous units consisting of prefix-like... more
This paper discusses parasynthesis, also known as circumfixation, in Degema. It highlights the fact that circumfixes are controversial not only because of the possibility to analyze them as discontinuous units consisting of prefix-like and suffix-like formatives that apply to the stem simultaneously or as units formed in two stages beginning with suffixation and ending with prefixation but also because they are considered rare or non-existent in the world’s languages, and are ruled out as impossible in some theories even in principle. Circumfixation in Degema is examined against the traditional view of parasynthesis and in the light of Generative Grammar. The paper notes that circumfixation is a very common and productive way of forming agentive and gerundive nominals and state nouns in Degema, despite claims of its rarity. It also notes that a traditional or theoretical analysis notwithstanding, there is a high degree of morpho-semantic bonding between both parts of the circumfix u...
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This paper focuses on politeness in language use in kgotla meetings among the Tswana ethnic groups of Balete, Bangwato and Bakhurutshe. It investigates how interlocutors’ use of language reflects social behaviour and how it relates to the... more
This paper focuses on politeness in language use in kgotla meetings among the Tswana ethnic groups of Balete, Bangwato and Bakhurutshe. It investigates how interlocutors’ use of language reflects social behaviour and how it relates to the conventions of interaction, such as openings and closings and other typical features of meetings, in kgotla meetings. The data in this paper was obtained from video recordings and interviews and was qualitatively analysed based on the communities of practice (CofP) approach (Eckert and McConnell-Ginet, 1992) and on Watts’ (2003) view of politeness. The results indicate that polite behaviour occurs both linguistically and non-linguistically during interactions and is enacted according to the norms of Tswana ethnic culture. Furthermore, the results indicate that the use of figurative language is evident in the interlocutors’ discourse. The paper concludes that interactions in kgotla meetings show polite behaviour, and that interactions in a socio-cultural context are largely dependent on various factors that affect the interlocutors’ use of language.
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This paper provides a descriptive analysis of cognate object constructions in Degema. Cognate object constructions refer to constructions that involve a verb and a cognate nominal object that is morphologically and semantically related to... more
This paper provides a descriptive analysis of cognate object constructions in Degema. Cognate object constructions refer to constructions that involve a verb and a cognate nominal object that is morphologically and semantically related to the verb. It distinguishes between eventive and referential cognate object constructions in Degema, observing that verbs in the former select only a cognate object whereas those in the latter can select a cognate object or a non-cognate object. The paper highlights asymmetries in cognate object constructions in Degema in the licensing of syntactic phenomena such as pronominalization, questions and topicalization. Furthermore, the paper classifies cognate object constructions in Degema into three semantic groups based on the semantic class of verbs from which these objects are derived. Consequently, it distinguishes constructions with activity, achievement and stative reading. In general, cognate objects in Degema are noted as clarifying or providing contrastive information about the activity or state of the verb from which they are derived and with which they collocate.
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Degema has a ten-vowel system in which vowels can be divided into two neat sets of five each, distinguished by tongue root. This paper clarifies how vowels of both sets are restricted from co-occurring in simple words and presents a... more
Degema has a ten-vowel system in which vowels can be divided into two neat sets of five each, distinguished by tongue root. This paper clarifies how vowels of both sets are restricted from co-occurring in simple words and presents a detailed examination of vowel harmony across morpheme boundary, showing that vowels in affixes harmonize with vowels in roots. It also illustrates how vowels in proclitics and enclitics harmonize with host vowels in a clitic=host (=clitic)/host=clitic combination. Similarly, it shows that the vowels in some possessive pronouns and demonstrative nominals harmonize with vowels in the head noun in a noun-modifier construction, and that the vowels in some adverbs agree with vowels in neighboring morphemes.
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Serial verb constructions in Degema have not been studied, regarding charac- teristics such as type of serial verbs, range of semantic notions that can be expressed by these verbs and position of tense-aspect-polarity markers in relation... more
Serial verb constructions in Degema have not been studied, regarding charac- teristics such as type of serial verbs, range of semantic notions that can be expressed by these verbs and position of tense-aspect-polarity markers in relation to these verbs. It is noted in this paper that serial verb constructions in Degema belong to the type called "concordial" serial verbs. Tense-aspect markers occur after the verb or after an object pronoun that begins with a consonant. In some cases, tense-aspect marking on the initial verb is repeated after non-initial verbs. Also noted is the fact that there need not be agreement in tense between verbs in series, contrary to what has often been claimed in the literature on serial verbs.
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The main objective of this article is to investigate the level of language vitality in Botswana on the basis of patterns of language use, transgenerational language transmission, language attitudes and ethno-cultural identity. We... more
The main objective of this article is to investigate the level of language vitality in Botswana on the basis of patterns of language use, transgenerational language transmission, language attitudes and ethno-cultural identity. We specifically look at the patterns of language use amongst six communities in north eastern Botswana, namely, Lesoma, Nata, Kachikau, Kazungula, Pandamatenga and Gweta. Our analysis draws insights from Fishman’s (1991) Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (GIDS) and Lewis and Simons’ (2009) Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS). Our results demonstrate language use preferences and how minority languages in Botswana are faring in relation to the national language (Setswana) and the de jure official language (English), and in relation to one another. In the main, our findings confirm previous impressionistic observations that Setswana dominates public, official and social domains while the ethno-linguistic vitality of community langua...
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This paper discusses the pronominal system of Odual, which has five subsets of pronouns: personal, reflexive, interrogative, demonstrative, and indefinite. A noteworthy feature of the system is the distinction between inclusive and... more
This paper discusses the pronominal system of Odual, which has five subsets of pronouns: personal, reflexive, interrogative, demonstrative, and indefinite. A noteworthy feature of the system is the distinction between inclusive and exclusive first person plural personal pronouns. Reflexivity is marked by a noun meaning 'self plus a possessive pronoun, the noun varying in form depending on the singularity or plurality of the antecedent. It is noted that tense/aspect markers in Odual show limited agreement for person and number, and in some cases they do not have distinct forms to reflect the differences in the forms of pronouns occasioned by differences in person and number. Also noted is the fact that the basic word order in Odual simple clauses is SVO, and that word order in NPs to a large extent is typologically consistent with the basic word order, as many of the pronouns that function as modifiers follow the noun they modify.
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Given the fact that the vocabulary of a language is constantly enriched to express new objects or concepts and actions or states of being, this article identifies and discusses the different strategies employed by Degema in the creation... more
Given the fact that the vocabulary of a language is constantly enriched to express new objects or concepts and actions or states of being, this article identifies and discusses the different strategies employed by Degema in the creation of words. The article notes that the word creation strategies employed by Degema include affixation, compounding, reduplication, borrowing, clipping and semantic extension. Affixation, compounding, borrowing and semantic extension are observed to be more widespread in the language than reduplication and clipping, which is more commonly found in proper nouns. In addition, the article notes that apart from having a meaning- distinctive function in homonymous lexemes, and the fact that deverbal nouns, such as agentives, gerundives and state nouns, seem to be characterised by the presence of a high-downstepped-high tone pattern which interacts with other word creation processes, tone plays a comparatively minor role in word creation in Degema. A significant observation that this article makes, and which has cross-linguistic implications, is that it is difficult to draw a neat line between inflection and derivation, as certain prefixes and circumfixes in Degema not only create new words, which is a derivational function, but also mark number, which is an inflectional function.
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This paper discusses restrictions observed in the attachment of verbal extensions to all verb bases in Degema. Kari (1995) discusses verbal extensions in Degema focusing on the number, underlying forms, and phonological rules that derive... more
This paper discusses restrictions observed in the attachment of verbal extensions to all verb bases in Degema. Kari (1995) discusses verbal extensions in Degema focusing on the number, underlying forms, and phonological rules that derive the surface forms of these extensions, but does not discuss the factors that permit or prohibit the attachment of each of the extensions to all verb bases in the language. In later works such as Kari (2003, 2008), Kari claims that reference is made directly or indirectly to semantics as a possible factor responsible for the prohibition of the causative, reflexive, reciprocal, and habitual extensions from attaching to certain verb bases. By examining a number of verb bases, the primary goal of this paper is to establish the range of factors that permit or prohibit verbal extensions from attaching to all verb bases in Degema. The findings of this paper show that phonological and syntactic factors, especially valency, in addition to the semantic character of verbs, play a crucial role in permitting or prohibiting the attachment of these extensions to all verbs bases in Degema.
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Endocliticization, unlike procliticization and encliticization, is a rare phenomenon which is often considered non-existent, except as a result of something else in the grammar. Given the assumption that words are more internally coherent... more
Endocliticization, unlike procliticization and encliticization, is a rare phenomenon which is often considered non-existent, except as a result of something else in the grammar. Given the assumption that words are more internally coherent than sentences, and that the rules of syntax should not change the morphological structure of words as they would of sentences, endocliticization is considered a negation of the very basis of stronger versions of the Lexical Integrity Hypothesis (LIH). A crucial question about endocliticization, and a basic problem with the phenomenon, which tends to give the LIH some universal validity, is how does the clitic – a non-integral part of the morphology of words – get to be located within its host, given that cliticization (a syntactic phenomenon) is always considered an external and not an internal attachment of morphemes? This paper examines the phenomenon of endocliticization and its implications for the LIH, drawing insights from Degema – a Niger-Congo language spoken in southeastern Nigeria. The paper is divided into six sections. Section 1 is the introduction; Section 2 discusses cliticization with emphasis on endocliticization; Section 3 examines some formulations of the LIH; Section 4 considers the implications of endocliticization for the LIH; Section 5 discusses the acquisition of Degema subject clitics, while Section 6 concludes the discussion.
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Il a souvent ete avance que les voyelles fermees /i, I, υ,u/ en degema ont des equivalents nasalises qui n'apparaissent qu'a la fin des sequences de deux voyelles. Toutefois, au lieu de considerer ces equivalents comme des... more
Il a souvent ete avance que les voyelles fermees /i, I, υ,u/ en degema ont des equivalents nasalises qui n'apparaissent qu'a la fin des sequences de deux voyelles. Toutefois, au lieu de considerer ces equivalents comme des voyelles nasalisees, deux autres analyses alternatives peuvent etre proposees : les voyelles peuvent etre analysees soit comme des approximantes nasalisees, soit comme des consonnes nasales. Dans cet article, l'A. adopte la 2 alternative en se basant sur les preuves instrumentales. En effet, l'analyse de ces soit-disant segments nasalises revele que pendant que le voisement continue pour le segment final apres la voyelle, il y a un arret du flux d'air oral avec une elevation precise du flux d'air nasal. Ceci indique que le segment final est une occlusive nasale
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1. Introduction 2. Definitions of Metathesis and Endoclitic 2.1. Definition of Metathesis 2.2. Definition of Endoclitic 3. Types of Clitics in Degema 4. Metathesis and Endoclitic in Degema 4.1. Factative Enclitic and Hosts Ending in... more
1. Introduction 2. Definitions of Metathesis and Endoclitic 2.1. Definition of Metathesis 2.2. Definition of Endoclitic 3. Types of Clitics in Degema 4. Metathesis and Endoclitic in Degema 4.1. Factative Enclitic and Hosts Ending in Vowels in Clause-final Position 4.2. Factative ...
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Avec un numéro par an, Linguistique et Langues Africaines poursuit la publication périodique d’articles en français ou en anglais en lien avec les activités de recherche du LLACAN (http://llacan.vjf.cnrs.fr). Ce n° 3 (juin 2017) présente... more
Avec un numéro par an, Linguistique et Langues Africaines poursuit la publication périodique d’articles en français ou en anglais en lien avec les activités de recherche du LLACAN (http://llacan.vjf.cnrs.fr).
Ce n° 3 (juin 2017) présente des études sur l’igala, le degema, le fon, l’ibò et le xitshwa, ainsi que cinq comptes-rendus (table des matières en téléchargement).
Disponible sur papier et téléchargeable en Open Access / Accès Libre
Ce n° 3 (juin 2017) présente des études sur l’igala, le degema, le fon, l’ibò et le xitshwa, ainsi que cinq comptes-rendus (table des matières en téléchargement).
Disponible sur papier et téléchargeable en Open Access / Accès Libre
Research Interests:
This paper discusses multilingualism in Nigeria. It demonstrates that Nigeria is not a country where three languages are spoken. Hausa, Yoruba, and Igbo are three Nigerian national languages, which give an unfortunate, superficial... more
This paper discusses multilingualism in Nigeria. It demonstrates that Nigeria is not a country where three languages are spoken. Hausa, Yoruba, and Igbo are three Nigerian national languages, which give an unfortunate, superficial impression to the one who is not familiar with the linguistic terrain of Nigeria that the country is geo-linguistically divided into three areas with Hausa spoken in the North, Yoruba in the West (and SouthWest), and Igbo in the East (and South-East). But this is a gross misconception and misrepresentation of what obtains in reality. The linguistic situation in Rivers State is interesting given that no less than twenty indigenous languages are spoken in the State, and that no less than ten ethnic groups are represented in the State. The paper is organized into four sections. Section 1 gives an overview of the linguistic situation in Nigeria; section 2 takes a look at the linguistic situation in Rivers State; section 3 examines multilingualism and language policy in Nigeria, while section 4 concludes the paper.