Perikles Christodoulou
Université libre de Bruxelles, CReA-Patrimoine, Department Member
- Classical Archaeology, European History, Museology, Classics, Ancient Greek History, Hellenistic History, and 32 moreRoman History, Roman Empire, Late Antiquity, History of Ancient Macedonia, Ancient Macedonia, Alexander the Great, Black Sea ancient history and archaeology, Black Sea Region Archaeology, Greek Archaeology, Roman Archaeology, Ancient Greek and Roman Art, Greek Epigraphy, Greek and Roman Epigraphy, Greek and Roman Architecture, Roman Architecture, Ancient Rome, Ancient Religion, Graeco-Roman Religion, Ancient Greek Religion, Ancient Egyptian cults in Greek and Roman World, Sarapis, Isiac cults, Isiac Religion, Isis Cult, Roman imperial cult, Late Antique Religion, Greek and Roman Sculpture, Hellenistic Sculpture, Roman Sculpture, Greek and Roman Portraiture, Greek and Roman Sexualities, and Roman and Greek Sexualityedit
This article focuses on an early Classical grave stele, which has been in the Sinop Archaeological Museum since 2013. The monument features a partially preserved figured scene in low relief and an inscription. The scene represents a... more
This article focuses on an early Classical grave stele, which has been in the Sinop Archaeological Museum since 2013. The monument features a partially preserved figured scene in low relief and an inscription. The scene represents a seated figure interacting with a standing companion. The inscription records the passing of Mitris, the only son of Myndies, who died ‘unfairly’ during the grape harvest season. This temporal reference hints at the importance of viniculture in the socio-economic life of Sinope. Not only is this stele a valuable addition to the corpus of funerary monuments from Sinope, it also contributes to a broader discussion on the ambiguity of inscriptions and figured scenes on grave monuments.
Research Interests:
Contemporary collecting relies on the expertise of museum professionals. They identify, acquire, and safeguard current objects and testimonies that can illustrate and challenge history writing in the future. This paper presents the... more
Contemporary collecting relies on the expertise of museum professionals. They identify, acquire, and safeguard current objects and testimonies that can illustrate and challenge history writing in the future. This paper presents the contemporary collecting endeavours of the House of European History—a museum that opened its doors in Brussels in 2017, as an academically independent project of the European Parliament. It contributes to the current discussion on best practices in collecting materials relevant to present-day society and documenting history in the making. In particular, it stresses the importance for a history museum to document significant aspects of the present and focuses on two recent collecting actions of the House, which were undertaken to document the COVID-19 pandemic and war in Ukraine.
Research Interests:
Presentation of the exhibition When Walls Talk at the House of European History. The exhibition is conceived as a circuit, tracking the ideas, concepts, views and perceptions of Europe through posters. Designed as a leisurely walk... more
Presentation of the exhibition When Walls Talk at the House of European History. The exhibition is conceived as a circuit, tracking the ideas, concepts, views
and perceptions of Europe through posters. Designed as a leisurely walk through the European public space, it attempts to draw the visitors’ attention to crucial issues such as how Europe has been perceived and represented in posters, or how posters have influenced, even moulded, and expressed a specifically European consciousness.
and perceptions of Europe through posters. Designed as a leisurely walk through the European public space, it attempts to draw the visitors’ attention to crucial issues such as how Europe has been perceived and represented in posters, or how posters have influenced, even moulded, and expressed a specifically European consciousness.
Research Interests:
After the end of the First World War and the dramatic changes that followed the Russian revolution, Europe saw the gradual rise of authoritarian and totalitarian regimes. Dynamic, martial and aggressive posters with strong colours... more
After the end of the First World War and the dramatic changes that followed the Russian revolution, Europe saw the gradual rise of authoritarian and totalitarian regimes. Dynamic, martial and aggressive posters with strong colours reflected the ideologies and the menacing atmosphere of that period. They depict the alliances that were being formed and anticipate the eventual confrontation and destruction of the Second World War.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Thanks to its particular geography on the northernmost promontory of Asia Minor, Sinope maintained its strategic importance for defence throughout the centuries and often hosted military installations. This article presents the epigraphic... more
Thanks to its particular geography on the northernmost promontory of Asia Minor, Sinope maintained its strategic importance for defence throughout the centuries and often hosted military installations. This article presents the epigraphic evidence for the presence of Roman military in Sinope, based on seven inscriptions and a possible reference to a soldier in a further inscription. One of the inscriptions is published here for the first time, while the other previously published inscriptions are revisited.
Situated in the unarmed province Pontus-Bithynia, Sinope did not host any regular army but it was defended by auxiliary troops. To date, four funerary inscriptions recording soldiers from the Augusta and Cypria cohorts have been found in Sinope. Although no legions were garrisoned in Sinope, three inscriptions mention legionary centurions. Two of them, a veteran and a centurion of legio XI Claudia, are commemorated on the grave monuments of their wives, whilst a third one, serving in legio XXII Primigenia pia fidelis, was the dedicator of a votive offering. Information gained from this epigraphic evidence will be evaluated in terms of personal concerns, origin, rank and marital status of the soldiers, in order to shed light on the ethnic and cultural diversity of Roman Sinope.
Situated in the unarmed province Pontus-Bithynia, Sinope did not host any regular army but it was defended by auxiliary troops. To date, four funerary inscriptions recording soldiers from the Augusta and Cypria cohorts have been found in Sinope. Although no legions were garrisoned in Sinope, three inscriptions mention legionary centurions. Two of them, a veteran and a centurion of legio XI Claudia, are commemorated on the grave monuments of their wives, whilst a third one, serving in legio XXII Primigenia pia fidelis, was the dedicator of a votive offering. Information gained from this epigraphic evidence will be evaluated in terms of personal concerns, origin, rank and marital status of the soldiers, in order to shed light on the ethnic and cultural diversity of Roman Sinope.
Research Interests: Roman Army and Sinope
Cette contribution interroge la vision de l’Antiquité présentée par la Maison de l’histoire européenne, un musée d’histoire de l’Europe institué par le Parlement européen et situé à Bruxelles. Son auteur est l’un des conservateurs qui... more
Cette contribution interroge la vision de l’Antiquité présentée par la Maison de l’histoire européenne, un musée d’histoire de l’Europe institué par le Parlement européen et situé à Bruxelles. Son auteur est l’un des conservateurs qui travaillent, depuis le lancement du projet en 2011, au développement et à la communication des contenus de ce musée. Au centre du propos, on trouvera les thèmes de l’Antiquité abordés dans le musée, les objets qui représentent ce contenu et éclairent sa narration, la muséographie, ainsi que des questions relatives à la théorie et à la pratique muséologique soulevées par les sujets et objets qui figurent dans l’exposition.
Research Interests:
What were the “shared sculptures” of Hermes and Heracles mentioned by Aelius Aristides in his prose hymn to Heracles? What were the Hermeraclae, listed among the sculptures procured by Titus Pomponius Atticus in Athens for Cicero? Such... more
What were the “shared sculptures” of Hermes and Heracles mentioned by Aelius Aristides in his prose hymn to Heracles? What were the Hermeraclae, listed among the sculptures procured by Titus Pomponius Atticus in Athens for Cicero? Such questions arise from the iconography of a funerary altar found in Thessaloniki, on which the deceased youth is presented in formam deorum, bearing the attributes of both Hermes and Heracles. It is almost certain that Cicero’s Hermeraclae were herms of Heracles, but there is no uniform or definitive answer to the other question. However, the altar from Thessaloniki and other evidence, though scarce, suggest that, no later than the end of 2nd century CE, monumental representations of the two gods in one body must have also existed.
Research Interests:
In 1994, the busts of two young boys came to light during the excavation of a private house in ancient Dion. They do not appear to be contemporary with one another: one apparently dates from the first three decades of the second century,... more
In 1994, the busts of two young boys came to light during the excavation of a private house in ancient Dion. They do not appear to be contemporary with one another: one apparently dates from the first three decades of the second century, while the other must have been sculpted about a hundred years later, in the first two decades of the third century. Interestingly, at some point around or after the middle of the third century, the hairstyles of both portraits were altered and the heads were given topknots (cirrus, μαλλός or σκόλλυς). The re-use of these sculptures, resulting in a change to the hair, but, surprisingly, no alteration of the facial features, raises questions as to their artistic production, function and interpretation.
Research Interests:
Creating a museum from scratch, without the benefit of a pre-existing core collection, proved to be an incredibly rewarding experience, but it was also challenging and extremely time consuming. Finding the right objects to convey our... more
Creating a museum from scratch, without the benefit of a pre-existing core collection, proved to be an incredibly rewarding experience, but it was also challenging and extremely time consuming. Finding the right objects to convey our messages in an optimal way—objects that were also of museum quality and complementary to one another—required both abstract reasoning and practical thinking. How three key objects came to join the House of European History’s permanent collection offers a fascinating glimpse into this selection process.
Research Interests:
A marble head, almost double life size, which appeared on the art market in 2014, has been described as a portrait of Trajan. The head does, indeed, bear some of the princeps’ characteristic traits, and the hairstyle has affinities with... more
A marble head, almost double life size, which appeared on the art market in 2014, has been described as a portrait of Trajan. The head does, indeed, bear some of the princeps’ characteristic traits, and the hairstyle has affinities with the so-called Sacrifice type. Nevertheless, some other features do not entirely fit the established iconography of Trajan. This raises questions about the copying of Imperial portraits and, ultimately, the relationship between official and private portrait.
Research Interests:
Trade is probably one of the !rst encounters that comes to mind when we think about exchanges beyond borders. From the re- motest past, people have felt the need to acquire goods they could not produce themselves, in exchange for their... more
Trade is probably one of the !rst encounters that comes to mind when we think about exchanges beyond borders. From the re- motest past, people have felt the need to acquire goods they could not produce themselves, in exchange for their own pro- ducts. Archaeological !nds show that long-distance trade began early in human history. Closely linked with the development of cities, long-distance economic exchanges were supported by increasingly complex systems of minting and accounting and made possible by technical progress in the art of sailing.
Research Interests:
Culture is intertwined with everyday life and is always shared. In this respect, European culture is not simply the summary of the different cultures of the countries in the continent, but a culture that has been defined through a long... more
Culture is intertwined with everyday life and is always shared. In this respect, European culture is not simply the summary of the different cultures of the countries in the continent, but a culture that has been defined through a long history, and results from shared traditions. The idea of Europe as a cultural space and not simply as a geographic notion goes back to the Renaissance, when the traditions of eastern and western Europe merged in a dialectic and dynamic new form.
Scholars and artists have often been at the forefront of transcultural exchange in Europe. Many of Europe’s finest intellectual and artistic achievements are the product of the cross-border movements of people, knowledge and skills that took place wherever the cross- fertilisation of ideas and talents were valued and encouraged.
Its meeting places are not always real spaces; sometimes they are virtual — bridges in time or space. Good examples are the Encyclopédie compiled in eighteenth-century France, which created an intellectual space; museums, which act as vehicles connecting knowledge and experience, space and time, real and imaginary encounters; and, most importantly, universities, which combine the virtual intellectual meeting space with a real physical one.
Scholars and artists have often been at the forefront of transcultural exchange in Europe. Many of Europe’s finest intellectual and artistic achievements are the product of the cross-border movements of people, knowledge and skills that took place wherever the cross- fertilisation of ideas and talents were valued and encouraged.
Its meeting places are not always real spaces; sometimes they are virtual — bridges in time or space. Good examples are the Encyclopédie compiled in eighteenth-century France, which created an intellectual space; museums, which act as vehicles connecting knowledge and experience, space and time, real and imaginary encounters; and, most importantly, universities, which combine the virtual intellectual meeting space with a real physical one.
Research Interests:
From the 1st century AD onwards, and especially during the 2nd and 3rd century, the Emperor was, on occasion, mentioned in inscriptions alongside Isis and Sarapis. Examining primarily, but not exclusively, the evidence from the Balkan... more
From the 1st century AD onwards, and especially during the 2nd and 3rd century, the Emperor was, on occasion, mentioned in inscriptions alongside Isis and Sarapis. Examining primarily, but not exclusively, the evidence from the Balkan provinces of the Roman Empire, it emerges that many of the inscriptions call on Isis and Sarapis to protect the health of the Emperor and to help him prosper. They are usually linked to dedications of altars and temples by high-ranking of cials or by members of the local elites. This type of dedication, which in fact was not limited to the “Egyptian gods”, was certainly a religious and political act, but it did not constitute an act of worship of the Emperor per se. However, other inscriptions could be interpreted as evidence of links between worship of the Emperor and of the Egyptian Gods. Whilst some of them appear merely to relate to the personal situation of certain actors of the Imperial cult, it seems that in Stobi, Neine and Tomis, the Isiac and the Imperial cults were closely connected. On a political level, the role of the Emperors in the process of appropriating the Isiac cults during the Principate in order to promote the Imperial ideology was important. The Flavians, Hadrian, Commodus and Caracalla actively endorsed the Isiac cults. This attitude continued during the middle of the 3rd century, and had its last peak during Diocletian’s reign and the period of Tetrarchy.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
A bust of Sarapis on a winged foot. A brick-red jasper gem found in Dion depicts a bust of Sarapis placed on his foot. The god wears the kalathos on his head and his foot is naked, with wings growing from the ankle, normally an... more
A bust of Sarapis on a winged foot.
A brick-red jasper gem found in Dion depicts a bust of Sarapis placed on his foot. The god wears the kalathos on his head and his foot is naked, with wings growing from the ankle, normally an attribute of Hermes. The depiction of Sarapis’ foot with his bust is known from examples in sculpture-in-the-round and Alexandrian coins; it has been connected to the god’s epiphany, his comforting presence and his healing power.
There are extremely few other examples of Sarapis and his foot on rings and gems, and the gem from Dion is in fact the only one so far that combines attributes of Sarapis and Hermes. Various details point to its dating from the 2nd c. A.D.
Gems were personal objects and therefore cannot help individually in eliciting more general conclusions. It seems, however, that Sarapis appears together with Hermes or with attributes peculiar to Hermes in certain other cases. The most impressive example is a bronze appliqué from Sabratha: Sarapis, with wings growing from the sides of his head, wears the kalathos and holds a caduceus in his left hand.
A key to an interpretation of these representations of the god is the fact that another deity of the Isiac circle, Hermanubis, combined the natures of the Greek Hermes and the Egyptian Anubis. Indeed, a graffito from Gebel Toukh in Egypt states that Zeus Sarapis and Helios Hermanubis are one and the same.
A brick-red jasper gem found in Dion depicts a bust of Sarapis placed on his foot. The god wears the kalathos on his head and his foot is naked, with wings growing from the ankle, normally an attribute of Hermes. The depiction of Sarapis’ foot with his bust is known from examples in sculpture-in-the-round and Alexandrian coins; it has been connected to the god’s epiphany, his comforting presence and his healing power.
There are extremely few other examples of Sarapis and his foot on rings and gems, and the gem from Dion is in fact the only one so far that combines attributes of Sarapis and Hermes. Various details point to its dating from the 2nd c. A.D.
Gems were personal objects and therefore cannot help individually in eliciting more general conclusions. It seems, however, that Sarapis appears together with Hermes or with attributes peculiar to Hermes in certain other cases. The most impressive example is a bronze appliqué from Sabratha: Sarapis, with wings growing from the sides of his head, wears the kalathos and holds a caduceus in his left hand.
A key to an interpretation of these representations of the god is the fact that another deity of the Isiac circle, Hermanubis, combined the natures of the Greek Hermes and the Egyptian Anubis. Indeed, a graffito from Gebel Toukh in Egypt states that Zeus Sarapis and Helios Hermanubis are one and the same.
Research Interests:
Priests of the Egyptian gods in Macedonia (3rd c. BC – 3rd c. AD). The cult of the Egyptian gods in Greece has emerged as a compelling subject in recent years. It is also a multi-faceted subject, its various facets still awaiting... more
Priests of the Egyptian gods in Macedonia (3rd c. BC – 3rd c. AD).
The cult of the Egyptian gods in Greece has emerged as a compelling subject in recent years. It is also a multi-faceted subject, its various facets still awaiting further study, as is the case with questions of cult topography in relation to the priests. So far, inscriptional evidence about priests of the Egyptian gods in Macedonia has come from Philippi, Amphipolis, Palaiokastro at Terpni (Nigrita), Anthemous, Thessaloniki, Dion, Beroia and Stobi and covers a timespan of six centuries from the very beginning of the 3rd century BC to the middle of the third century AD. Names of priests are mainly mentioned in inscriptions accompanying votive offerings, either by the faithful, or by the priests themselves. An overview of this material, which is rather scant except in the case of Thessaloniki, offers information on the role played by the priests in the sanctuaries and within the cities and on the organisation of the cults in general.
Keywords: Priests; Egyptian Gods; Isis; Sarapis; Macedonia.
The cult of the Egyptian gods in Greece has emerged as a compelling subject in recent years. It is also a multi-faceted subject, its various facets still awaiting further study, as is the case with questions of cult topography in relation to the priests. So far, inscriptional evidence about priests of the Egyptian gods in Macedonia has come from Philippi, Amphipolis, Palaiokastro at Terpni (Nigrita), Anthemous, Thessaloniki, Dion, Beroia and Stobi and covers a timespan of six centuries from the very beginning of the 3rd century BC to the middle of the third century AD. Names of priests are mainly mentioned in inscriptions accompanying votive offerings, either by the faithful, or by the priests themselves. An overview of this material, which is rather scant except in the case of Thessaloniki, offers information on the role played by the priests in the sanctuaries and within the cities and on the organisation of the cults in general.
Keywords: Priests; Egyptian Gods; Isis; Sarapis; Macedonia.
Research Interests:
Dion: The Severan Curia. In the time of Augustus Dion acquired the status of Roman colony and was from then on governed under the Roman administrative model. This is reflected in the construction of the Severan forum, which follows the... more
Dion: The Severan Curia.
In the time of Augustus Dion acquired the status of Roman colony and was from then on governed under the Roman administrative model. This is reflected in the construction of the Severan forum, which follows the Italian, enclosed layout. A colonnade runs around a paved central square at the sides of which are set the Augustaeum, the basilica and, next to it, the curia. Three doors on the southern side of the basilica give access to the curia. Today only the foundations of the curia survive, but the original height of the building can be estimated using the rules proposed by Vitruvius. It is likely that the walls were painted in imitation marble and information from excavations suggests that a wooden structure ran along the longest two sides, perhaps a stepped platform similar to the stone steps in other curiae where the benches of the decuriones sat, most probably in four rows at each side. According to my calculations, from the Severan era onwards the curia of Dion could hold at least two hundred decuriones.
Keywords: Dion; imperial era; administration; city councils and assembly buildings; basilicas.
In the time of Augustus Dion acquired the status of Roman colony and was from then on governed under the Roman administrative model. This is reflected in the construction of the Severan forum, which follows the Italian, enclosed layout. A colonnade runs around a paved central square at the sides of which are set the Augustaeum, the basilica and, next to it, the curia. Three doors on the southern side of the basilica give access to the curia. Today only the foundations of the curia survive, but the original height of the building can be estimated using the rules proposed by Vitruvius. It is likely that the walls were painted in imitation marble and information from excavations suggests that a wooden structure ran along the longest two sides, perhaps a stepped platform similar to the stone steps in other curiae where the benches of the decuriones sat, most probably in four rows at each side. According to my calculations, from the Severan era onwards the curia of Dion could hold at least two hundred decuriones.
Keywords: Dion; imperial era; administration; city councils and assembly buildings; basilicas.
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
Research Interests:
The Thirty Years’ War left deep scars in many parts of Europe. The Defenestration of Prague in 1618 saw an escalation in the struggle between the Bohemian estates and the Emperor as a territorial lord, and quickly grew into a pan-European... more
The Thirty Years’ War left deep scars in many parts of Europe. The Defenestration of Prague in 1618 saw an escalation in the struggle between the Bohemian estates and the Emperor as a territorial lord, and quickly grew into a pan-European conflict. War was waged for the ‘right faith’, political supremacy and influence, profit and riches, and sheer survival. Unleashed violence, starvation and diseases claimed countless victims; cities and entire regions were devastated and abandoned. In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia finally brought about the end of the war. It was a milestone towards achieving a secular order for sovereign European states.
During this period, art production never ceased. Especially in times of crisis, works of art play an essential role. They represent the power of rulers, document acts of war and violence, and call for peace. As coveted spoils of war, works of art often ended up taking epic journeys across Europe before reaching their final destination. Today, they count among the most important works in international museums.
Four hundred years after the beginning of the Thirty Years’ War, twelve museums and research institutions from Germany, the Czech Republic, Sweden, Poland, Italy, Spain and Belgium have come together to examine the war’s impact on the arts through a transnational lens. The House of European History exhibition is a showcase of the Bellum & Artes project extending over a number of years. All partner institutions are located in regions that were affected by the Thirty Years’ War and all are represented in the exhibition by a special object or thematic focus. They are united in their aim to raise awareness of their shared cultural heritage through intensive co-operation in research and museum work.
During this period, art production never ceased. Especially in times of crisis, works of art play an essential role. They represent the power of rulers, document acts of war and violence, and call for peace. As coveted spoils of war, works of art often ended up taking epic journeys across Europe before reaching their final destination. Today, they count among the most important works in international museums.
Four hundred years after the beginning of the Thirty Years’ War, twelve museums and research institutions from Germany, the Czech Republic, Sweden, Poland, Italy, Spain and Belgium have come together to examine the war’s impact on the arts through a transnational lens. The House of European History exhibition is a showcase of the Bellum & Artes project extending over a number of years. All partner institutions are located in regions that were affected by the Thirty Years’ War and all are represented in the exhibition by a special object or thematic focus. They are united in their aim to raise awareness of their shared cultural heritage through intensive co-operation in research and museum work.
Research Interests:
The illustrated poster was born in Europe in the late 19th century, reflecting an increasingly commercialised world and later conflicting political ideologies. Posters are ephemeral, produced for a specific moment, yet many elements are... more
The illustrated poster was born in Europe in the late 19th century, reflecting an increasingly commercialised world and later conflicting political ideologies. Posters are ephemeral, produced for a specific moment, yet many elements are recycled and resonate in cultural memory today. From the propaganda of the World Wars and the Cold War to the explosion of cultural exchange, tourism and the emergence of multi-voiced social movements after the Second World War, complex layers of European division and unity are revealed through a selection of posters from the collection of the House of European History. They reflect the development and transformation of the public sphere in European cities.
Research Interests:
Creating the House of European History presents the long road towards the creation of a new museum, the House of European History. Forty authors describe in 44 papers this fascinating and complicated development process from very... more
Creating the House of European History presents the long road towards the creation of a new museum, the House of European History. Forty authors describe in 44 papers this fascinating and complicated development process from very different professional and personal angles. They recount ideas and challenges, ambitions and doubts, obstacles and solutions.
The book is divided in five parts.
The first part, Process, reflects the organisational work behind the creation of a new museum under the auspices of the European Parliament.
The second part, Building, is dedicated to the history of the building and its renovation.
The third part, Content, is the most extensive, and presents the narrative of the exhibition and some of its key objects.
The fourth part, Production, highlights all the creative work behind the scenes before the opening of the museum, from the design to the translation of texts in 24 languages.
Finally, the fifth part, Outreach, concerns the preparatory work for communication, learning in the museum, and planning for temporary exhibitions.
The book is divided in five parts.
The first part, Process, reflects the organisational work behind the creation of a new museum under the auspices of the European Parliament.
The second part, Building, is dedicated to the history of the building and its renovation.
The third part, Content, is the most extensive, and presents the narrative of the exhibition and some of its key objects.
The fourth part, Production, highlights all the creative work behind the scenes before the opening of the museum, from the design to the translation of texts in 24 languages.
Finally, the fifth part, Outreach, concerns the preparatory work for communication, learning in the museum, and planning for temporary exhibitions.