AGRICULTURE MARKETING

The authors sought to assess the entrepreneurial behaviour of the organic vegetable farmers in the Badulla District of Sri Lanka. The primary data were collected through use of a structured questionnaire that was used to interview 231 farmers. The study found that there are three main agribusiness models operating in the district. Entrepreneurial orientation (EO) of the farmers fitted into three business models was measured following the method suggested by Covin and Slevin and by Lumpkin and Dess. The study revealed that the highest EO was exhibited by the Member Farmers of Organic Association (2.4 of 5) followed by the Contract Organic Farmers (2.24 of 5), and the lowest EO was exhibited by the Independent Organic Farmers (1.8 of 5). The analysis of variance revealed that the EO is significantly different across the three business models, and mean separation revealed that the Member Farmers’ of Organic Organizations model exhibited the highest EO followed by the Contract Farmers model and then the Independent Farmers’ model.

KEYWORDS entrepreneurial orientation, organic agribusiness models

Lack of adequate marketing facilities in the agricultural sector has remained one of the most talked about bottlenecks in the efforts for wellbeing of the agriculture dependent population in the newly formed state of Uttarakhand. Following the guidelines of the model national Agricultural Produce Marketing Committee (APMC) Act of 2003, Uttarakhand also adopted the Act in the year 2011 with a hope that the Act would streamline the marketing possibilities for farmers and the sector would flourish with new investments pouring in through increased private participation. The present article, with an attempt to review the performance of the Act in the state of Uttarakhand, highlights that not only the Act has failed in improving the marketing opportunities for the agricultural sector, it has in reality squeezed the market for the common producers due to inordinate delays in institutionalizing the Act and other factors related to governance of the Act

The present study entitled “Market Integration and Price Transmission Behaviour in Apple Markets of India” investigated the integration among five major apple markets i.e., Dhalli (Shimla), Chandigarh, Bengalore, Azadpur (Delhi) and Mumbai. The trends in area, production, productivity and export of apple were analysed at national and state level. The results of state-wise trend analysis during 2006-07 to 2015-16 revealed highest growth rate in area (2.72%/annum) and production (6.46 %/annum) was found in J&K and Himachal Pradesh respectively. The trends of apple area and production in India were analyzed by dividing the study period into two sub periods viz. 1960-61 to 1990-91(P-I) and 1991-92 to 2015-16(P-II) and the results revealed significant positive growth in both the periods with highest growth (6.23%/annum) in P-1 and variability in area was also higher in P-I as compared to P-II. Trends in production of apple recorded a significant positive growth in apple production during both the periods with highest growth rate of 7.11 percent per annum during P-I, whereas, variability was highest during P-II (4.58). The productivity was increasing significantly during P-II (2.73%/annum) and (0.32%/annum) in overall period, whereas, declining growth was found during P-I (-0.28%/annum). Decomposition analysis of apple production in India revealed that in P-I production variation in apple was mainly due to area effect, whereas, in P-II, it was due to yield effect. But in overall period area effect was recorded. Period-wise and areas wise trends were also analysed for Himachal Pradesh from 1973-74 to 2015-16 and the results revealed highest growth rate in area of 3.78 percent per annum during P-I in potential areas. The growth rates in production in potential areas showed significant increase, while, marginal areas showed declining growth in all periods except P-II, that exhibit highest growth rates in production (5.86%/annum). Growth rates in productivity showed significant increase in P-II in all the apple growing areas with maximum growth in potential areas (3.88%/annum) except marginal areas that showed significant decline in productivity in P-I and overall period. The decomposition analysis revealed that production variation in all areas in HP during P-I was due to area effect except marginal areas, whereas P-II was marked by yield effect in all apple growing areas on the account of varietal improvement. But, the overall increase in production was due to area expansion except marginal areas. Export trends of apple from India revealed that it is a net importer of apple as a very meager share only 1.5 per cent of its production base was exported. The 99 per cent of apple is exported to SAARC nations. The results of seasonality analysis revealed that that price seasonality of apple markets varied between 23.43 to 93.26 per cent. The highest seasonal variation was found in Shimla market whereas, lowest in Delhi market. Co integration analysis revealed that the five selected apple markets although geographically dispersed and spatially separated, yet they depict long run price association. As per Pair-wise Granger causality there were unidirectional causality between market pairs; Shimla-Chandigarh, Delhi-Chandigarh wholesale markets and bidirectional causality between Mumbai-Shimla, Delhi-Shimla, Bengaluru-Shimla and Bengaluru-Chandigarh and no causality between pairs; Delhi-Mumbai, Chandigarh- Mumbai, Bengaluru-Mumbai and Bengaluru-Delhi. The impulse response function revealed that apple prices in all the markets reacts immediately to the shock by going down initially for 4 to 5 months and then it stabilizes for the remaining period i.e., the process of price transmission was very quick in selected markets. Structure, conduct and performance analysis was also performed for Dhalli, Solan, Chandigarh and Azadpur markets which  revealed that Chandigarh and Dhalli markets are highly competitive having GCR of 0.33 and 0.32 respectively, while Delhi and Solan are comparatively less competitive having GCR of 0.51 and 0.56. Market infrastructure index revealed that Azadpur and Chandigarh were found comparatively developed markets with respect to infrastructure as compared to Dhalli and Solan market. Market performance studies revealed that Azadpur market followed by Dhalli market are the more efficient markets as compared to Chandigarh and Solan markets.

Through ethnographic interviews with soybean traders in a mandi in western Madhya Pradesh, this paper explores the intersection of the online market created by new technology with the physical market of commodities, intermediaries, and life in the mandi [market yard]. Known as ‘dabba’ in local parlance, the online futures market was much maligned by traders who described it as “nothing but satta [speculation].” Ironically, traders who should benefit most by hedging their risks on the futures market had, instead, stopped participating altogether. This paper argues that the criticism expressed by traders needs to be taken seriously because they form the backbone of the agricultural marketing system in India and their lack of participation takes away from the credibility and completeness of information on the online futures market.

Vegetable farming and retail has become a lucrative source of income for Nepali farmers in the recent years, especially for women. Media sources have also played an important role to promote vegetable farmers. Government schemes and international support have benefited the vegetable production, yet they face multiple constraints that hinder commercialization. In this study seven contributing factors to generate reliable income from vegetable farming are discussed. Past accomplishments and prevailing problems are presented based on information collected from published works in the last 10-20 years with the aim of seeking possible solution strategies in the Nepali context.

Farmer Producer Companies enables the farming community including the small and marginal farmers in addressing their Production and Marketing issues that are emerging in recent time in Indian Agriculture. Many Producer Companies have come up in India to address these concerns. In this context Five Successful FPCs were selected from Kerala, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu with diverse kind of products and a comparative perspective have been made which reflects the lessons to be learned for the new and existing Farmer Producer Companies. These Companies have minimized Production Risks and Marketing Risks. They have ensured their participation in the Post-Production process that ultimately resulted in higher incomes. The success of a Producer Company needs to be judged on the basis of benefits accruing to the farmers but not on the basis of how much the company has accumulated profits.

The National Agricultural Market, through networking of the APMCs, provides electronic trading for different kinds of agricultural produce. Under e-NAM, all the trading is to be done through a digital platform as prescribed to ensure transparency in the transactions and provide a fair price to the farmers. The study was conducted in three APMCs of Uttar Pradesh to analyze the ground-level practices occurring in these APMCs and to assess the level of adoption of e-NAM. A considerable variation in the arrival and bidding prices obtained from the APMCs was found when compared with the data available on the agriculture market information system (Agmarknet).In this chapter, we thus propose blockchain-based infrastructure to facilitate a highly transparent and autonomous system to further strengthen the information system and enable the efficient application of government rules and regulations pertaining to agricultural transactions in the APMCs through the utilization of smart contracts.

Development in agriculture sectors is directly related to future food security. Countries that have invested in agriculture revolution early are now reaping the benefits of food security. Early adopters of new research area in the field of agriculture have now become knowledge disseminators and consultancy provider. Farmers who have adopted the new wave of farming practices have become examples to institutions of agriculture
and to other farmers.
With the new wave of information revolution Indian farmers have also started reaping the benefit of IT wave. A farmer thinks of value addition to their existing farming practices.The role of corporate sectors has also increased in the agriculture sector.
Agriculture based industry rely on the new farming practices that synchronizes with the production distribution and processing of commercial farming.
Role of media in commercial farming is basically to create an environment where innovation in farming practice is fused with its adoption. Media also creates favorable approach from all the quarters to new agriculture innovations and practices. The present paper explores the attitude of employs, students and teachers in the field of agriculture towards agriculture corporate sectors.

Remoteness, poor infrastructures, labor shortages, small quantities of seed at the producer level and few private seed traders are inherent problems in maize seed production and marketing in the hills of Nepal. Farm-saved seed, including seed exchange and private sector supply are the main sources of improved maize seeds in Nepal. Using the primary data collected from 200 respondents across 20 hilly districts of Nepal, this paper analyzes marketing chains and the efficiency of marketing of improved maize seed along the supply chains.
The results show five major maize seed marketing chains. Chain I involved producers, collectors, wholesalers, retailers and consumers; Chain II involved producers, collectors, wholesalers and consumers; Chain III involved producers, collectors, retailers and consumers; Chain IV involved producers, collectors and consumers; and Chain V involved producers and consumers. A total of 64.3 tons of improved maize seed was marketed through the identified chains. Chain II was the most important supply chain, accounting for 38.8per cent of total marketed seeds; while Chain I was the least important, accounting for 4.3per cent. Producers’ share on consumer price was highest in Chain V (100per cent) and lowest in Chain III (66per cent). Transportation cost accounted for the highest amount (average 47.5per cent). Highest margin of profit (NRs 6.5/kg) was taken by retailers and lowest by collectors (NRs 2.5/kg). Highest marketing efficiency with a magnitude of 7.24 was observed in Chain V and lowest with a magnitude of 0.9 in Chain I.

The article 'Rural Marketing Scenario in India-The Online Village Ahead' speaks widely about the growth of e-commerce in rural areas. It explains the need for change in strategies to adapt to the new, diverse market, and provides a list of prerequisites for rural marketing. This article also concentrates on how the study on 'analysis of customer' can be completed to better understand the market. The four major characteristics of rural customers are highlighted, on the basis of which rural marketing may be performed. Government initiatives in agriculture, Digital India, AgTech, and so on are relevant subjects which are accustomed to the future of rural markets as an online village. Rural marketing is highly important for businesses in India because of the wide customer base in those areas; businesses, therefore, need to penetrate the markets there. No business can succeed if it is based primarily only in the cities. Hence, this article covers the need for rural marketing in India.

Vegetable farming and retail has become a lucrative source of income for Nepali farmers in the recent years, especially for women. Media sources have also played an important role to promote vegetable farmers. Government schemes and international support have benefited the vegetable production, yet they face multiple constraints that hinder commercialization. In this study seven contributing factors to generate reliable income from vegetable farming are discussed. Past accomplishments and prevailing problems are presented based on information collected from published works in the last 10-20 years with the aim of seeking possible solution strategies in the Nepali context.

The current Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP) government’s agrarian agenda of supporting entry of big agro-business corporations (especially those close to the ruling party) in Indian agriculture and weakening further the already weakened structure of federal devolution of economic and political power in India has been in the making but it came out most clearly in the three ordinances the central government brought on 5 June 2020 in the name of agricultural marketing reforms.

As per the 2011 census, the percentage of population depending upon agriculture and allied activities is 54.6 percent in India. Agriculture contributes 17 percent to India’s gross value added at current prices of 2015-16, 2011-12 series. (Annual Report, Ministry of Agriculture, 2016-17) Due to adoption of green revolution in India, the food production multiplied by 3.7 times in comparison to population at 2.55 times between 1965 and 2015. This has made India self sufficient in food production. There has been an increasing trend in the production but the incomes of the farmers have not increased in tune with production. The NSSO data (2011-12) reveals that 1/5th of the rural population that depends on agriculture for livelihood live below poverty line. About 22.5 percent of farm households in India live below poverty line. The states which has maximum agriculture households living below poverty line is Jharkhand with 45.3 percent followed by Orissa at 31.1 percent, Bihar at 28.4 percent and Uttar Pradesh with 23. 2 percent. (Chand Ramesh, 2017). The farmers have to pay taxes while purchasing inputs and agriculture equipment. The previous tax system in India had numerous taxes in relation to central and state government. At the central level, taxes such as central value added taxes (CENVAT) or central excise duty was charged at 12.36 percent; service taxes @ 15 percent; central sales tax @ 2 percent; countervailing duties (CVD) @ 12.36 and special additional duty of customs (SAD) @ 4 percent existed. Similarly at the state level, the taxes were value added tax on production of manufacturing goods @ 10 percent to 14.5 percent; sales tax between zero percent to fifteen percent; entry tax on consumption of goods or sale @ 3 percent to 20 percent and entertainment tax @ 15 percent to 50 percent. (Leemput Eva Van & Ellen A Wiencek, 2017)To overcome these multiple taxes, India has adopted dual GST in which the taxes to be paid are divided among Centre and State Governments. Central Goods and Service Tax (CGST) will be administered by Central government and State Goods and Service Tax (SGST) which has replaced VAT, entry tax, octrio, luxury tax, entertainment tax etc will be administered by the respective state governments. If there are any inter-state trade or commerce, then the Inter-state goods and service tax (IGST) would apply. In this context an attempt is made to study the impact of GST on agriculture in India.

The most significant characteristic of a sound marketing system lies in the distribution channel. Marketing is a strong instrument whereby per capita income could be raised leading to a higher standard of living. Using an efficient marketing channel ensures the highest price of the product, which leads to raising income; and thus ultimately improves living conditions. The marketing channels used by the agricultural producers are not always performing at the same efficiency in terms of their earnings i.e., different channels have different earnings.

The National Agricultural Market, through networking of the APMCs, provides electronic trading for different kinds of agricultural produce. Under e-NAM, all the trading is to be done through a digital platform as prescribed to ensure transparency in the transactions and provide a fair price to the farmers. The study was conducted in three APMCs of Uttar Pradesh to analyze the ground-level practices occurring in these APMCs and to assess the level of adoption of e-NAM. A considerable variation in the arrival and bidding prices obtained from the APMCs was found when compared with the data available on the agriculture market information system (Agmarknet). In this chapter, we thus propose blockchain-based infrastructure to facilitate a highly transparent and autonomous system to further strengthen the information system and enable the efficient application of government rules and regulations pertaining to agricultural transactions in the APMCs through the utilization of smart contracts.

The study of existing marketing system in the state of Karnataka – Gauribidanur Taluk, Chickballapur Dist, is conducted. The data was collected through questionnaires. A total of 699 farmers were from the taluk covering almost the same number of villagers were contacted and gathered data. The analysis of data shows that the farmers are interested in the present ICT system available. However we find large number of people not continuing with the system of marketing. The reasons for farmers to not use or discontinue with the existing system of ICT provided by the government forms the basis for construction of enhanced business model. The reasons form the hardships that need to be addressed and changes in the procedures to be followed to increase the number of farmers using ICT in marketing agricultural products. The data collected is statistically analyzed to understand the reasons, laxity, hurdles, technical problems and the attitude of the farmers towards the use of new technology in marketing. The suggested model is an enhancement of the existing and tries to removes all the hurdles in implementing ICT in agricultural products marketing. The new model on implementation will not only increase the ICT use in marketing but also be a guiding star in all the agricultural activities

Remoteness, poor infrastructures, labor shortages, small quantities of seed at the producer level and few private seed traders are inherent problems in maize seed production and marketing in the hills of Nepal. Farm-saved seed, including seed exchange and private sector supply are the main sources of improved maize seeds in Nepal. Using the primary data collected from 200 respondents across 20 hilly districts of Nepal, this paper analyzes marketing chains and the efficiency of marketing of improved maize seed along the supply chains. The results show five major maize seed marketing chains. Chain I involved producers, collectors, wholesalers, retailers and consumers; Chain II involved producers, collectors, wholesalers and consumers; Chain III involved producers, collectors, retailers and consumers; Chain IV involved producers, collectors and consumers; and Chain V involved producers and consumers. A total of 64.3 tons of improved maize seed was marketed through the identified chains...