Classical Greece

This research strives to analyze the reasons behind the discrepancies in gender equality between classical Athens and Sparta.  I do so by analyzing the values and beliefs in these societies, and have come to the conclusion that the militaristic society of Sparta heavily influenced the equality of Spartan women.

https://www.habelt.de
Nováková, L. 2019. Greeks who dwelt beyond the sea: people, places, monuments.  Universitätsforschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie 333. Bonn: Dr. Rudolf Habelt. ISBN 978-3-7749-4216-5.
The Greek civilization, whose legacy remains visible to the present day, developed in several places on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The Greeks often came into contact with different, sometimes significantly older and more developed cultures that helped them to advance in the sciences, arts and trade. One such crossroads of civilizations was Anatolia, a land that was the literal meeting place of east and west with an incredibly diverse population. This was reflected in the diversity of its cultures, languages and religions. There is a growing volume of new research – papers, articles and monographs – aimed at determining at least in part how these ancient societies defined themselves. The answer to this relatively complex question can only be sought in the written and archaeological evidence. We can get to know the Hellenes from written sources and their unique artistic heritage, while grave art helps to fill in the rich mosaic of their Anatolian neighbors. The term “Greeks dwelling beyond the sea” is a paraphrase of the name for the Greeks in foreign sources (Yaunā), which referred to the inhabitants of the distant lands beyond the western frontier of the Persian Empire. In this case, the term refers to the Greeks who crossed the Aegean Sea and settled on the Anatolian mainland and nearby islands.
https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2020/2020.09.34/

Healing centres (asklepieia) in ancient Greece (ca. 500-200 BC) were mainly located well outside densely populated areas such as urban centres and major sanctuaries. The question is why this should be the case. Another research question is whether people travelled to these centres because they specialised in healing particular ailments. From the analysis of votive inscriptions and anatomical votive reliefs it may be concluded that Epidaurus specialised in treating blindness and mental problems, drawing patients from all over Greece; Corinth specialised in curing limbs (mainly hands) female breasts and male genitals; and Athens specialised in curing disorders affecting the torso, eyes and legs. Hence, it is seems that people indeed travelled to specific healing centres in hopes of more effective healing, selecting a healing centre specialised in treating the relevant part of the anatomy.

The much shorter Archaiologikon Deltion for the single year of 2005 invariably offers far fewer reports on the work of the Archaeological Service than the four-year volume with which we were presented last year. This, in itself, is no bad thing, although the geographical and chronological balance generated by such a large dataset is notable by its absence. This unevenness is, as ever, partially offset by the publication of fieldwork, although certain areas maintain a far more visible archaeological presence than others. This is particularly true for the northeastern Peloponnese, which has, in recent years, been the recipient of an almost unparalleled focus of both research and rescue excavation; a fact reflected in the significant contribution made to this year's report by the edited proceedings of the conference The Corinthia and the Northeast Peloponnese: Topography and History from Prehistoric Times until the End of Antiquity (Kissas and Niemeier 2013). A total of 56 individual papers provide details on sites that range in date from the Neolithic to the Byzantine period. A great strength of this collection lies in the contribution of so many current and former staff of the Archaeological Service, and, of the numerous papers that engage directly or indirectly with the archaeology of the Archaic to Roman period, several are discussed in greater depth in the course of this report. A complementary Hesperia supplement detailing the current state of prehistoric and historic research on the Corinthian Isthmus is due to appear before the end of the year (Gebhard and Gregory forthcoming), as is a study of material from Henry Robinson's 1961–1962 excavation in the North Cemetery (Slane forthcoming). The study of religious practice during the Classical period benefits from the publication of the first volume of material from excavations conducted by the Canadian Institute in Greece between 1994 and 2001 in the Sanctuary of Athena at Stymphalos (Schaus 2014a), while the consolidation of synthetic regional studies and individual site reports within Villae Rusticae: Family and Market-oriented Farms in Greece under Roman Rule (Rizakis and Touratsoglou 2013) will no doubt ensure that it becomes a standard text for the study of the rural economy of Roman Greece (see Stewart, this volume).

The article takes a look at some historiographical perspectives that have conditioned the studies on the Greek polis during the last decades, paying particular attention to the concept of consumption city impelled by Moses Finley, following Werner Sombart and Max Weber, and the criticisms on this notion elaborated by Mogens Hansen within the Copenhagen Polis Center. A review of Sombart’s formulation on the consumption city, which is Weber’s point of departure taken up by Finley in proposing that the ancient city was a city of consumers, allows Hansen to conjecture that the polis does not fit into this model. Indeed, it is based on a distribution of the population between countryside and town that is not in line with what recent archaeological surveys have shown in relation to the polis. On the basis of this, the notion of Normalpolis, promoted by John Bintliff but originally enunciated by Eberhard Ruschenbusch, and certain ideas of Aristotle, on the inclusion of peasant population in the politeia, are reconsidered to understand the relationships between population, territory, and political models that were probably characteristic of the structure of most poleis.

This article explores the biography of the Dying Niobid, a Classical Greek statue that was found in Rome. A great body of Greek statues was brought to Rome during the last two centuries BC, where many of them were displayed for centuries. Previous research has mainly studied these statues as representatives of Greek culture. However, when studying the Dying Niobid through time it becomes clear that this sculpture has functioned in a variety of contexts; the Classical Greek context being just one of them. Writing a cultural biography of this object enables us to take all these contexts into consideration and illustrate how meaning, values and functions change as the object makes its way through space and time.

Sculpture itself as a form of art provides insights into the functioning and outlook of its indigenous society at large. The focus of this piece being women in Greek sculpture has displayed the cultural positioning of women vis-à-vis men in Grecian society. In doing so it has come across aspects of their respective gender roles such as attitudes to nudity and sexuality as practiced during the classical period.

Im Peloponnesischen Krieg (431 bis 404 v. Chr.) standen sich die Machtblöcke des Ersten Attischen Seebundes unter Führung Athens und des Peloponnesischen Bundes unter seinem Hegemon Sparta gegenüber. Dank Thukydides sind wir über den Verlauf dieses antiken Weltkriegs wie über kaum ein zweites Ereignis des Altertums informiert. Bruno Bleckmann erläutert die Kriegsgründe, die verschiedenen Etappen der Auseinandersetzung, den Ausgang sowie die historische Bedeutung dieses Konflikts.

""En Filipo II y el Arte de la Guerra tendremos la oportunidad de conocer en profundidad a uno de los más grandes reyes de la antigua Macedonia. Gracias a su habilidad como estratega, diplomático, político y soldado, heredó un reino pobre, débil y acosado por innumerables enemigos y lo transformó en el más poderoso de toda Grecia.

A lo largo de sus páginas podremos conocer la historia del reino Macedonio, desde sus orígenes míticos hasta la formación de un imperio, de la mano del que, a la postre, se convertiría en el padre del mítico Alejandro Magno y en el forjador de un nuevo ejército que cambiaria el devenir de la guerra en la Antigüedad. Filipo II fue el creador de la falange macedonia, formación que se demostraría como inigualable en el campo de batalla y que reportaría incontables victorias sobre poderosos enemigos, como los ilirios, los tesalios, los tracios, los beocios o los atenienses. Pero no sólo eso, logró integrar en el campo de batalla a la infantería y a la caballería para emplearlos en nuevas formaciones tácticas: armó a sus soldados con las míticas sarissas y apreció como pocos las posibilidades militares que la maquinaria de guerra podía proporcionarle, siendo el mecenas de numerosos avances en este campo. Soñó con conquistar el Imperio persa, cuando ya había logrado lo que nadie antes fue capaz: el control de Grecia.

Sólo la muerte le arrebató esa hazaña, pero sentó las bases de lo que más tarde conseguiría su propio hijo. Su figura levantó tanto odios como pasiones; se le conocía como mujeriego y bebedor, pero también por su habilidad para la oratoria, por sus astucia, determinación y valor. Siempre luchó en primera línea junto a sus soldados y nunca permitió que éstos le llamaran rey, sino solo "General".

La desigual distribución de la riqueza bajo las condiciones actuales del capitalismo es, como bien se sabe, el eje sobre el que Piketty ha centrado su atención; asimismo, forma parte de sus reflexiones el posible rol del estado, a través de los sistemas de tributación, como modo de in-tervenir en la distribución y atenuar el impacto de la desigualdad, incluso de propender a cierta igualación. No son sus respuestas concretas sino los interrogantes y los aspectos conceptuales a veces subyacentes en las respuestas mismas, los que aquí abordamos, en la medida en que nos convocan a reflexionar sobre la especificidad de la Atenas del siglo IV a.C. a partir de cuestiones que no dejan de remitir a la situación presente. Como en muchos otros aspectos de la Grecia antigua, las estimaciones acerca de cuán igualitarias o desiguales fueron las póleis según la distribución de la riqueza han conducido a que, sobre la misma base documental, unos las hayan considerado sociedades relativamente igualitarias, mientras que otros las han percibido como sociedades desiguales. En este contexto, la distribución de la riqueza y la eva-luación del grado de igualdad o desigualdad en la Atenas del siglo IV han encontrado un lugar privilegiado entre los intereses de los especialistas, debido a la conjunción de los datos disponibles sobre población y riqueza y a cierto nivel de consenso dentro de la comunidad académica en cuanto a la posibilidad de usar estos números, más de allá de discusiones sobre la interpretación de ciertos datos. Mi objetivo, tras revisar los datos e interpretaciones plan-teadas, es tratar de ensamblar este conjunto para producir un modelo de distribución de la riqueza entre diferentes sectores de la comunidad de ciudadanos atenienses. A partir de esto, se extrae el coeficiente de Gini con la idea de ponderar, dentro de lo que cabe, el grado de desigualdad que implica determinada disposición de los datos, cuando se asumen ciertos puntos de partida. Mi propia percepción a partir de los diferentes argumentos esgrimidos, conforme a los datos ensamblados, me llevará a proponer un modelo de distribución de la riqueza, con el cual voy a configurar un posible cuadro de distribución de la tierra, el elemento más significativo de la riqueza. Finalmente, planteo diversas cuestiones abiertas al debate conforme a los ejes de este evento. Mi perspectiva es que, a pesar de las importantes disparidades, en términos relativos y comparativos no en términos absolutos, claro está, la sociedad ateniense fue relativamente igualitaria.

This course presents a broad survey of historical forces at work over the past 6,000 years, examining the manners in which human societies have organized themselves along categories of race, ethnicity, class, and gender to meet the challenges of the increasing human population and its demands on natural resources: thus, it examines continuity and change in societies over time, in different places, and among various peoples.

IG V 1,1 should not be dated to the beginning of the Archidamian War. Connections with an
allusion in Thuc. 2,8,4 and the explication of the beginning of the War in the Peace of Aristophanes are not
very firm. Datation at the Decelean War remains possible.

A concepção arquitetônica dos templos dóricos gregos é abordada na interface
da análise entre as fontes textuais e a cultura material. Verificamos a relevância e o
papel que tiveram a “elegância” e a “sutileza”, segundo Vitrúvio, no modus operandi
dos arquitetos gregos, como recursos técnicos e metodológicos para o
desenvolvimento do projeto do templo dórico grego entre o século V-II a.C. Visamos
esclarecer e estabelecer vínculos entre esses conceitos relativamente subjetivos e a
lógica subjacente que norteou os arquitetos, tanto em projeto como nas aplicações
precisas em obra, verificando assim a Hipótese Modular proposta por Mark Wilson
Jones, para a concepção dos templos dóricos gregos. Para isso, abordarmos os
fundamentos científicos da arquitetura grega a partir da análise de dois grupos de
templos: o Grupo 1, composto de oito templos hexastilos, 6 x 13, do século V a.C. e
o Grupo 2, composto de nove templos hexastilos perípteros de configuração de
colunata lateral variada, datados entre o IV-II século a.C. Adotamos como ponto de
partida da pesquisa, e referência fundamental, os artigos publicados por Mark
Wilson Jones em 2001 e 2006, respectivamente, nos periódicos: American Journal
of Archaeology e Nexus. Procuramos sistematicamente atualizar o debate apoiados
nas discussões mais recentes e em nossas próprias análises e conclusões.

This thesis addresses the conception of Greek Doric Temple Design and architecture found in the analysis of and interface between textual sources and material culture. This thesis notes the importance of and the role that "elegance" and "subtlety"
played, according to Vitruvius, in the modus operandi of Greek architects, including technical and methodological resources in the development of Greek Doric temples between the fifth and second centuries BC. This work aims to clarify and establish
links between these relatively subjective concepts and the subjacent logic that guided these architects, both in design as well as in their precise application in construction, thus verifying the Modular hypothesis proposed by Mark Wilson Jones. Towards this end, this thesis addresses the scientific foundations of Greek architecture by analyzing two groups of temples: Group 1, comprised of eight 6 x 13 hexastyle temples from the fifth century BC and Group 2, comprised of nine hexastyle peripteral temples in varied peristyle lateral configuration, dated between the fourth and second centuries BC. The starting point of and the fundamental reference for the research are scholarly articles published by Mark Wilson Jones in 2001 and 2006 in The American Journal of Archaeology and Nexus, respectively. This work seeks to systematically update the latest debates and discussions surrounding this topic via
the author’s own analysis and subsequent conclusions.

This work presents an in-depth study and reconsideration of early 5th-century BC Greek history. Focusing on Athens in the aftermath of the second Persian invasion, it reconstructs the chronology, events, and context of the first half of this century, through the figure of the prominent Athenian politician and general Cimon, son of Miltiades. The study deals with themes of politics, economy, religion, military and social issues, and reception.
The near-complete absence of contemporary sources means that the analysis is based mainly on later traditions. This study argues that present scholarship needs to be revised in favour of source criticism that reinterprets the surviving evidence, by setting it against its own contemporary context and by highlighting divergences among the sources.
The ancient tradition has reshaped and reinvented the memory of the period under study along with that of Cimon. By peeling away a complex of layered traditions, biased by cultural stereotypes and later perspectives, this monograph questions traditional approaches to the 5th century BC, opening new ways to address and interpret Classical Greek history.

The Delian League was formed as a buffer against further Persian aggression into Greece.  It was also formed to exact revenge for the two invasions of Greece by Persia in 490 and 480 BCE.  The league began with good intentions but ended up becoming a way for Athens to grow in power and strength.  Its demise came about with the beginning of the Peloponnesian War.

The following text is an English translation of Vandewalle, A. (2019). 'Assassin's Creed Odyssey: een speelbare versie van klassiek Griekenland' in Hermeneus 91 (4), 146-152 originally published in Dutch. The translation is my own. The purpose of this short, popularizing article was (i) to present Assassin's Creed Odyssey and the study of antiquity in video games to a non-gamer audience of classicists unfamiliar with the Assassin's Creed franchise, (ii) to discuss how the game treats the Greek world and its literature, and (iii) to briefly list some of the many applications of this game in educational use. As such, this text considerably lacks theoretical foundation, academic references and terminological reflection, and provides but a mere first step on the road to a fuller understanding of how the ancient world is represented in this game. I hope to keep traveling that road in future research.

Βασιλείου-Δαμβέργης, Αλέξανδρος-Νεκτάριος, Ιω. «Η σημασία των θαλάσσιων περασμάτων προς τον Β. Ευβοϊκό κόλπο (Δίαυλος Τρικερίου, Δίαυλος Κνημίδας) από τους μυθικούς χρόνους μέχρι τα μέσα του 5ου αι. π.Χ.», στο: Πρακτικά Ε΄ Συνεδρίου Αλμυριώτικων Σπουδών, επιμ. Βίκτωρ Κοντονάτσιος, Χρυσούλα Κοντογεωργάκη, Αλυρός Βόλου 14-16 Οκτωβρίου 2016, Αλμυρός 2019, σ. 179-212.

The article is devoted to two versions of the tale about Cyrus’ the Great childhood. The author compares Herodotus’ and Xenophon’s versions of the tale. The main event of Herodotus’ version is a game, basilinda which has a sacral sense. Xenophon’s version has six main events and the third event namely the conversation between Cyrus and his mother Mandane is a culmination of the tale. It is necessary to note the epics’ influence on Xenophon’s version, which becomes apparent in the attitude to the problem of truth and time in the tale. In the tale «Cyropaedia» as well as in «Histories» we can see probably some kind of «syncretic truth», which differs from historical and narrative truth. Both versions tell us about events which were in real, not in fictional or narrative, time in the past. The author supposes that the main purpose of «Cyropaedia» was to tell about Cyrus’ deeds (erga).

Descubra la vida y cultura en la brillante Grecia Clásica. Su sistema político fragmentado y los derechos de los ciudadanos, la educación, las artes y el ocio, la vivienda y el urbanismo, sus ceremonias y mitología, los viajes, la alimentación y el mundo militar. Un recorrido riguroso y didáctico por la sabiduría, costumbres y tradiciones de la cuna de la civilización occidental.
Grecia es la tierra de dioses y héroes, de reyes y príncipes y la cuna de una de las civilizaciones que más brillaron en la Antigüedad. Pero ¿qué sabemos de su día a día? ¿A qué se dedicaban? ¿Dónde vivían? ¿Cómo se divertían? ¿Cómo influían los dioses en los ciudadanos? En Breve historia de la vida cotidiana de la Gracia clásica, el lector podrá conocer otros aspectos igual de importantes que las guerras y batallas pero que a menudo pasan desapercibidos o no se tienen en cuenta debido a que todo el protagonismo se centra en los acontecimientos políticos y en las confrontaciones bélicas

Greek artists and architects were important social agents who played significant roles in the social, cultural, and economic life of the ancient Greek world. In Artists and Artistic Production in Ancient Greece, art historians, archaeologists, and historians explore the roles and impacts of artists and craftsmen in ancient Greek society. The contributing authors draw upon artistic, architectural, literary, epigraphical, and historical evidence to discuss a range of artists, architects, artistic media, and regions. They refer to historiography and modern theory, taking stock of the past while offering some new directions for future research. Incorporating a variety of methodological approaches and making use of often-neglected evidence, Artists and Artistic Production in Ancient Greece re-examines many long-held ideas and provides a deeper understanding of particular artists and architects, their works, and their social agency.

Table of Contents

Preface
1. Introduction: Greek artists, yesterday and today/Kristen Seaman
2. The social and educational background of elite Greek artists/Kristen Seaman
3. Portrait of an artist: Euthymides, son of Pollias/Jenifer Neils
4. Kritios and Nesiotes: two revolutionaries in context/Andrew Stewart
5. Craft identity: mosaics in the Hellenistic East/S. Rebecca Martin
6. Artistic choice and constraint on coins/Isabelle A. Pafford
7. Constructing architects: the so-called 'Theseum architect'/Margaret M. Miles
8. Euphranor/Olga Palagia
9. Politics and personality?: the case of Kephisodotos the Younger/Peter Schultz
10. Artists' signatures on archaic Greek vases from Athens/Sarah Bolmarcich and Georgina Muskett
11. Response: reflections on identity, personality, and originality/Jeffrey M. Hurwit

In this paper I address a problem in the text and narrative of Herodotus’ history: namely a possible reason why the historian makes no mention of the Sphinx at Giza in Book 2, while he is concerned to note a minor edifice at the complex containing the three great pyramids. I suggest that whereas Herodotus devotes detail to the supposed history of one of the three small pyramids that stand beside the pyramid of Mycerinus, a story that contains similar topical elements to the story of the murder of the Lydian king Candaules by Gyges in Book 1, the argument that a description of the Egyptian Sphinx was omitted because it was not visible probably holds no substance. Moreover, sphinxes elsewhere were a constant topic of interest especially in various dramatic versions produced at Athens during the fifth century, and depending on the date of the composition of Herodotus’ Book 2 any audience of his history would have been familiar with the sphinx which features in the story of Oedipus, mythical king of Thebes. It is therefore argued here that had Herodotus composed Book 2 of his history at a time when Sophocles’ play Oedipus Tyrannos was produced in Athens, between 428 and 425, the Sphinx at Giza would almost certainly have received a mention. But if Herodotus wrote this part of his history as early as 440, as suggested here, when the Theban Sphinx was not newsworthy, then the Egyptian Sphinx was omitted from the text simply because of the historian’s understandable lack of interest in this form of statuary at that particular time.

Este libro propone un estudio de la pólis griega indagando los problemas conexos de los orígenes de la ciudad y sus estructuras de funcionamiento, así como los diversos enfoques forjados por los especialistas para dar cuenta de estos aspectos. Se analiza la pólis en el marco general de la historia grecorromana, apelando al modelo de la ciudad antigua, su formación, su funcionamiento político-institucional y sus condiciones agrarias, económicas y sociales. Se estudia asimismo el papel de la aldea, abordando el problema de cuáles son los conceptos más adecuados para interpretar a los labradores helénicos, así como los vínculos entre la aldea y la ciudad y el lugar que la primera pasa a ocupar una vez ocurrido el surgimiento de la pólis. Por último, se indaga la invención de la política y la democracia, dando un encuadre diferente, y a la vez complementario, de la emergencia de la pólis como forma estatal cuyas prácticas se organizan bajo una lógica política.

Do mythological stories contain elements which we may term "ecological"? And how do the story elements of myths negotiate the interaction between human society and the nonhuman world? Starting from these questions, the essay looks at the foundational myth of ancient Athens, namely the contest between Athena and Poseidon. The main argument is that the myth reflects on the interplay between the lifegiving elements, earth and (salt-)water, and how they relate to human social organization and processes of meaning-making. Highlighting the olive's central role for Athenian society and culture, the myth underscores the fundamental importance of a sustainable handling of the resource - an insight that found concrete expression in cult and "sacred law". Remarks on the role of religion for a theory and practice of sustainability conclude the discussion.

English translation of a text on the Polis Method which will be published in French in the Proceedings of the symposium Fabula Agitur that was held in Grenoble in January 2015. The text describes a method to teach ancient Greek through full immersion that has been developed in recent years by the Polis Institute. Students are taught to talk ancient Greek as a living language in order to become able to reach fluency in reading original texts. Translated from the original French by Anthony Antunes and Janet Safford (Polis Institute)

Since 2009, Greece has been hit by a severe economic recession followed by harsh austerity policies, gradual impoverishment, and ultimately social collapse. This article investigates the cultural landscape of the so-called ‘Greek crisis’, focusing on Athens, the nation’s capital, and the ways the crisis discourse employs biopolitical technologies of dispossession and displacement in order to generate an intensified breed of bodypolitics. The article’s main case study is documenta 14, a blockbuster exhibition of contemporary art organized in Athens in 2017, seemingly elaborating on the ideas of debt – classical and modern – though in fact promoting neoliberal approaches to public economy and life. The idea of ‘classical debt’, the article concludes, continuously reiterated by both Greece’s defenders as well as its most unforgiving critics, rather than acting as an emancipatory force, ends up producing a public consisting of silent bodies, trapped in highly romanticized discourses of the past and ultimately unable to defend themselves. This tension, however, also provokes narratives and gestures made of contradictions and ambiguity, difficult to map and monitor according to established research protocols.

Hiero I of Syracuse was a Sicilian monarch of the classical period, who reigned in Syracuse between 478 and 466. If royalty may have become rarefied in the political universe of Late-Archaic and Classical Greece, I contend that the reign of Hiero saw the creation, around his person, of a royal ideology: that is to say, that he represented himself and was perceived as king. Frisone's article "Experimenting Basileia: Princely Models and the Tyrants of Sicily", distinguishes two approaches to Greek kingship, one formalist and one pragmatist, where the former deals with royalties bearing established royal institutions, and the latter with royalties which, although lacking specific royal institutions, expressly assert themselves as royalties and are recognized as such. Adopting this second approach, this research works mainly in the field of representation, and therefore, focuses on discourses organized by Hiero on royal power. According to Hekster and Fowler (2005), royal ideology is constructed "by the transmission and reception of messages, between king and subject, and king and rival." And thus this research compares contemporary Greek royalties to Hiero's and attempts to show that at the turn of the Archaic and Classical periods, royalty as a factual, mythical, and religious referent, is sufficiently present in the Greek mental universe for Hiero to make a convincing interpretation of his reign as a royalty.

The subject of the present study revolves around the burials of warriors in the area of Greece during antiquity, with emphasis on the phenomenon of burying the dead with arms. The time period, which is examined here begins from the Iron Age and reaches up to the Hellenistic Era. The first part of the thesis is divided into four chapters based on the chronological classification of findings. In the first chapter, I present the warrior burials of the Iron Age by geographical region, starting from the North and heading to the South. Afterward, I proceed to the chapters concerning the Archaic, the Classical, and finally, the Hellenistic Era. In the second part, I present the conclusions of the study that was conducted, the above are accompanied by detailed tables that record the archaeological data that were assembled. The conclusions follow the same structure as the main part of the thesis, as they are presented in the same chronological order.

This dissertation argues that martial virtues and images of the soldier’s life represented an essential aspect of early Byzantine masculine ideology. It contends that in many of the visual and literary sources from the fourth to the seventh centuries CE, conceptualisations of the soldier’s life and the ideal manly life were often the same. By taking this stance, the dissertation challenges the view found in many recent studies on Late Roman masculinity that a Christian ideal of manliness based on extreme ascetic virtues and pacifism had superseded militarism and courage as the dominant component of hegemonic masculine ideology.

The present article explores the use of diagnostic types in the interpretation of Classical Greek coin types. Whereas it is not always possible to say definitively whether given coin types may have had economic significance, political significance, both, or something else entirely for their recipients, the study of large numbers of coins, whether on the market, in public collections, or in hoards yields
useful results. Investigation reveals that there was a large degree of coherence in the sorts of types employed by dozens of the most important issuing authorities of the Classical world. Any notion that the Classical period was a Wild West free-for-all of largely interchangeable and meaningless types now seems improbable. The common perception of extreme type flux before Alexander is mistaken, probably because scholars hitherto gathered their data and impressions from museum collections, whose acquisitions naturally tend towards new varieties, the unusual, and the unique, at the expense of the run-of-the-mill that in fact made up the bulk of coins in antiquity and the majority of the material on the market today. The Hellenistic centuries did indeed see a further standardization and limitation of what poleis put on their coins, but the process had its inception with the arrival of coined money in European Greece, circa 550 BC, not in the carnage of Chaeronea. The copying of well-known diagnostic types by other issuing authorities raises the question of intentionality, and this paper will explore two possible explanations for a close imitation of Athenian
coin iconography. This article is not concerned with the widespread and multifaceted phenomenon of coin forgery for economic reasons (one thinks here especially of plated fourrées, or of the good-silver copies of Athenian owls made in the ancient Near East), since this has been well discussed already, but with the extent and semiotics of image appropriation on Classical Greek coinage.