Conflicts of Law

The French version of this paper can be found at : http://ssrn.com/abstract=1965949The effective development of mutual trust requires a solid foundation. Asserting such trust a priori could compromise relationships between different States rather than accelerating the process of integration. The abolition of the exequatur system entails a real risk of an increase of forum shopping and procedural frauds. Instead of reforming the architecture and foundations of the Brussels I Regulation, which has already been shown to operate effectively, it would be preferable to strengthen the efficacy of the Regulation by simplifying its rules and imposing mandatory deadlines and means to sanction instances of fraud. The associated economic benefits will follow ipso facto.

ABSTRACT The concept of globalisation is commonly discussed as an issue in international law. However, little attention is paid to its influence in domestic family law. As a result of the growing trend of globalisation, legal and cultural norms of the host culture and the foreign culture are fused, thereby, leading to cultural homogenisation or cultural hybridisation, depending on the level of accommodation of the foreign norm by the host norm. One of the areas where hybridisation or homogenisation of cultural and legal norms manifests, especially in African countries including Nigeria, is in the marriage system, particularly in the conclusion of marriage contracts. In Nigeria, one of the impacts of cultural hybridisation is the evolvement of multi-tiered marriage, where a couple combines marriages under the statute law, customary law and religious law, especially Islamic law. This paper is an exploratory study of how globalisation impacts on how and why multi-tiered marriage is contracted in contemporary Nigeria. The paper also briefly discusses how the combination of marriages as a response to globalisation affects the operation of family law rules in Nigeria as well as the rights of the parties involved, especially the women.

Δέκα χρόνια μετά την έκδοση του Καν. 4/2009 του Συμβουλίου, της 18ης Δεκεμβρίου 2008, για τη διεθνή δικαιοδοσία, το εφαρμοστέο δίκαιο, την αναγνώριση και εκτέλεση αποφάσεων και τη συνεργασία σε θέματα υποχρεώσεων διατροφής, και οκτώ περίπου έτη μετά την έναρξη εφαρμογής του, δημοσιεύθηκε η πρώτη απόφαση, στο πλαίσιο της οποίας εξετάστηκε το ζήτημα της προσβολής της εκτελεστικής διαδικασίας, που βασίστηκε σε άμεσα εκτελεστή αλλοδαπή απόφαση διατροφής. Ο συγκεκριμένος κανονισμός περιέχει την πρωτοτυπία της διπλής ρύθμισης αλλοδαπών αποφάσεων: Σύμφωνα με το Τμήμα 1του Κεφαλαίου IV (άρθρα 17 επ.), είναι επιτρεπτή η άμεση έναρξη αναγκαστικής εκτέλεσης στο κράτος υποδοχής, χωρίς τη μεσολάβηση «επικυρωτικής» διαδικασίας ενώπιον δικαστηρίου του κράτους αυτού, όταν η αλλοδαπή απόφαση προέρχεται από κράτη μέλη που δεσμεύονται από το Πρωτόκολλο της Χάγης του 2007. Αντίθετα, σύμφωνα με το Τμήμα 2 (άρθρα 23 επ.), η κήρυξη εκτελεστότητας επιβάλλεται, όταν η αλλοδαπή απόφαση έχει εκδοθεί σε κράτος που δεν δεσμεύεται από το ανωτέρω  πρωτόκολλο . Η διάκριση αυτή έχει απωλέσει πλέον τη σημασία της, καθώς το σύνολο των κρατών μελών δεσμεύεται πλέον από το Πρωτόκολλο . Μέχρι σήμερα έχουν δημοσιευθεί αποφάσεις με αντικείμενο την αναγνώριση και εκτέλεση αλλοδαπών αποφάσεων που είχαν εκδοθεί πριν από την 18η Ιουνίου 2011 . Η  απόφαση του ΜονΠρΠειρ είναι η πρώτη που είχε ως αντικείμενο την ακύρωση της αναγκαστικής εκτέλεσης αλλοδαπής απόφασης, για την οποία δεν μεσολάβησε το στάδιο της κήρυξης εκτελεστότητας. Η σπουδαιότητα της απόφασης είναι συνεπώς εύλογη.

CITED:
CASTELLÓ PASTOR, JOSÉ JUAN, "Disponibilidad de productos y servicios en línea en el mercado único digital", en CASTELLÓ PASTOR, JOSÉ JUAN, GUERRERO PEREZ A. y MARTÍNEZ PÉREZ, M. (Dirs), Derecho de la Contratación Electrónica y Comercio Electrónico en la Unión Europea y en España, Tirant Lo Blanch, Valencia, 2021, pp. 315-321.
__

En el sector del comercio electrónico de la UE, los consumidores han visto en multitud de ocasiones obstaculizadas las transacciones en línea cuando intentaban adquirir el producto o contratar el servicio de un comerciante situado en otro Estado miembro debido a la técnica del bloqueo geográfico. Conocedor de ello, el legislador vela por la represión de las prácticas discriminatorias en las transacciones comerciales en la UE; esto es, por que no se den situaciones en las que no exista una justificación objetiva para el trato diferente por razón de la nacionalidad, de la residencia o del lugar de establecimiento (incluidos criterios indirectos como la dirección IP o los datos de pago) del cliente en relación con la compraventa de productos y la prestación de servicios en la UE porque dificulta el potencial del comercio electrónico transfronterizo y reprime el pleno uso del mercado único digital. En efecto, este trato diferente no justificado es el que procura eliminar el RBGI, de aplicación desde el pasado 3 de diciembre de 2018. Buena prueba es la multa impuesta por la Comisión Europea al grupo hotelero español Meliá de 6.7 millones de euros por incluir en sus contratos con los operadores turísticos cláusulas restrictivas, que discriminaban entre los consumidores del Espacio Económico Europeo (EEE) en función de su lugar de residencia, infringiendo la normativa europea de defensa de la competencia . Así pues, el RBGI contribuye indudablemente en la formación del mercado interior en línea, adapta las libertades básicas al consolidado escenario digital para impulsar la economía digital, aumentar la libre competencia y las opciones de los consumidores en todo el mercado interior de la UE . Con todo, algunos aspectos de este instrumento pueden crear una fricción con el Derecho internacional privado (o Dipr.).

[-]
In the EU e-commerce sector, consumers have often been hindered in online transactions when trying to purchase the product or contract the service from a trader located in another Member State due to geo-blocking. In recognition of this, the legislator ensures that discriminatory practices in commercial transactions in the EU are prohibited, i.e. that there are no situations where there is no objective justification for different treatment on the basis of the nationality, residence or place of establishment (including indirect criteria such as IP address or payment details) of the customer in relation to the purchase of products and provision of services in the EU because it hampers the potential of cross-border e-commerce and stifles the full use of the digital single market. Indeed, it is this unjustified different treatment that the GDPR, which has been in force since 3 December 2018, seeks to eliminate. Proof of this is the fine imposed by the European Commission on the Spanish hotel group Meliá of 6.7 million euros for including restrictive clauses in its contracts with tour operators, which discriminated between consumers in the European Economic Area (EEA) on the basis of their place of residence, in breach of European antitrust rules. Thus, the GDPR undoubtedly contributes to the formation of the online internal market, adapts the basic freedoms to the consolidated digital landscape to boost the digital economy, increase free competition and consumer choice throughout the EU internal market. However, some aspects of this instrument may create a friction with private international law (or Dipr.).

Non di rado una complessa transazione finanziaria, o commerciale, prende forma giuridica in distinti ma collegati contratti, ciascuno dei quali contenente la propria previsione sul giudice munito di competenza esclusiva. Accordi di scelta del foro siffatti, potenzialmente confliggenti, possono essere forieri di incertezze e difficoltà. Un caso di questo genere è al centro della battaglia giudiziale in corso tra la banca francese BNP Paribas s.a. e una società italiana. Quest’ultima ha incardinato in Italia una causa risarcitoria, per violazione di obblighi di legge o derivanti da un contratto di finanziamento stipulato con la banca, invocando l’accordo di elezione del foro torinese ivi contenuto. La banca, però, ha precedentemente promosso a Londra un’azione di accertamento negativo relativa al contratto Swap stipulato per coprire il detto finanziamento, facendo valere la clausola di scelta del foro inglese contenuta nel modello ISDA Master Agreement, ampiamente utilizzato dalla prassi finanziaria internazionale per la stipula di derivati.
In vicende complesse come questa, sempre più ricorrenti nella prassi giudiziaria, l’attribuzione di competenza esclusiva a giudici diversi solleva due ordini di problemi: da un lato, di interpretazione delle diverse clausole di elezione del foro, per definirne l’esatta portata materiale e stabilire, quindi, se esse si escludano a vicenda oppure siano effettivamente confliggenti; dall’altro lato, di efficace gestione dei procedimenti simultaneamente pendenti davanti ai fori putativamente designati. Da questo punto di vista, queste fattispecie sono un banco di prova per il nuovo meccanismo speciale di litispendenza istituito dall’art. 31 parr. 2 e 3 del regolamento (UE) n. 1215/2012 nell’intento di trovare un giusto equilibrio tra la prevenzione dei procedimenti paralleli e il rispetto della volontà delle parti.

According to Jaffee (2001), the place of work is characterized by conflict which is analyzed as meta-theoretical framework that identifies the constant and overarching challenges facing organizations. This descriptive study sought to identify and describe the effect of destructive conflict on employees' productivity in Ghana Highway Authority. Self-administered questionnaire was used to obtain data from staff of the Ghana Highway Authority, Kumasi. The study found that destructive conflicts (caused by lack of resources; criticisms and gossip; accusation; unfair provision of different kinds of benefits; pay cut without consent; individuals consistently failing to admit their weakness; etc.) do not occur very often. Apart from 'killing' an individual emotionally, such conflicts hurt group cohesion, promote interpersonal hostilities, divert energies, create bad feelings, lead to high labour turnover and costly litigations. It is recommended that complains and suggestions of the staff should be addressed at staff durbars and union meetings and feedback given to them through their representatives.

Este trabajo reconstruye el proceso de ocupación, desalojo y desposesión de dos experiencias de producción de espacio urbano en una ciudad del Sur Global: Rosario (Argentina). Nos centramos en la franja urbana de la costa central, escenario de las trayectorias de dos sujetos colectivos, los okupas y los pescadores artesanales. Ambas comunidades presentaron formas alternativas de producir e imaginar el espacio urbano y plantearon la necesidad de generar diferencias con las tendencias corporativas que mercantilizaban la ciudad, su cultura y sus modos de vida. A través de sus prácticas y resistencias cotidianas, okupas y pescadores mostraron alternativas espaciales y futuros culturales-productivos para una genealogía y cartografía del presente urbano. Mediante una combinación de la hermenéutica etnográfica e historiográfica, intentamos mostrar las prácticas de resistencia a las fórmulas gubernamentales de la renovación urbana. palabras clave | espacio público, transformaciones, socioterritorial, urbanismo.

This article explores the approach recently adopted by supranational and national courts in Europe vis-à-vis the assessment of jurisdiction in human rights and public interest litigation.

In its first part, the article analyses whether, and to extent, the private international law doctrine of forum of necessity could, in the current state of the law, help guaranteeing the effectiveness of the “right to a court” vested by article 6 E.C.H.R. Reference will be made to the interpretations of this head of jurisdiction recently submitted by the highest civil courts of France and Switzerland, as well as by the European Court of Human Right in the seminal Naït-Liman case.

Remarking the fairly narrow understanding of said doctrine arisen in recent case-law, this article, in its second part, looks into alternative procedural strategies that plaintiffs in foreign-cubed cases may adopt in order to ground jurisdiction in Europe. The paper contends, in particular, that there are multiple ways in which these  plaintiffs could profit from the hard-and-fast logic underlying the jurisdictional regime set in place by the Brussels I bis Regulation. Nevertheless, while establishing jurisdiction might no longer be a big impediment, several other issues of procedural and substantive law might still derail a judgment on the merits.

Bank resolution is key to avoiding a repetition of the global financial crisis in which failing financial institutions had to be bailed out with taxpayers' money. It permits recapitalizing banks or alternatively winding them down in an orderly fashion without creating systemic risk. Resolution measures, however, suffer from a structural weakness. They are taken by nation-states with territorially limited powers, yet they concern entities or groups with global activities and assets in many countries. Under traditional rules of private international law, these activities and assets are governed by the law of other states which is beyond the remit of the state undertaking the resolution. This paper illustrates the conflict between resolution and private international law by using the example of the European Union, where the limitations of cross-border issues are most acute. It explains the techniques and mechanisms provided in the BRRD and the SRM-Regulation to make resolution measures effective in intra-Eurozone cases, in intra-EU conflicts with non-Euro Member States and in relation to third states. However, it also shows divergences in the BRRD's transposition into national law and flaws that have been uncovered through first cases decided by national courts. A brief overview of third-country regimes furthermore highlights the problems in obtaining recognition of EU resolution measures abroad. This piece posits that regulatory cooperation alone is insufficient to overcome these shortcomings. It stresses that the effectiveness of resolution will ultimately depend on the courts. Therefore, mere soft law principles of regulatory cooperation are insufficient. A more stable and uniform text on resolution is required, which could either take the form of a legislative guideline or, ideally, of a model law. It is submitted that such a text could pave the way for greater effectiveness of cross-border resolution.

Mit der Bedeutung des amerikanischen Marktes für die deutsche Wirtschaft und der wachsenden Globalisierung der Weltmärkte ist in den letzten Jahren das Interesse an den rechtlichen Rahmenbedingungen in den Vereinigten Staaten stark gewachsen,  Gerade bei mittelständigen Unternehmen ist jedoch eine gewisse Scheu von einem Engagement auf dem U.S. amerikanischen Markt festzustellen.  Dies beruht zum einen auf der rechtlichen Eigenständigkeit der einzelnen Bundesstaaten; die daraus resultierenden Unterschiede können, so ist wohl die weitverbreitete Befürchtung, ein landesweites Engagement unrentabel.  Hinzu kommen immer wieder Berichte in der Presse über Schadensersatzurteile (punitive damages) in für deutsche Verhältnisse unbekannten Grössenordnungen. Die Urteile gegen VW und BMW sind nur zwei Beispiele.

Der Beitrag beschränkt sich auf punitive damages (Strafschadensersatz) und will darstellen, unter welchen Vorsaussetzungen solche amerikanischen Schadensersatzurteile in Deutschland vollstreckbar sind und welche rechtlichen Bedenken hiergegen bestehen.

Global security cannot be achieved until people view the world as a global community. Until such time, differences will continue to be perceived as threatening. These perceived “threats” are the primary threat to global security. This volume proposes methods for minimizing the “us versus them” mentality so that we can build a sense of global community.

The common law rules for recognition and enforcement of foreign judgments were radically reformulated by the Canadian Supreme Court in Beals v Saldanha. Few other common law jurisdictions have considered  whether or not to follow Canada in this development in private International Law. In 2012, the Irish Supreme Court definitively rejected the Canadian approach. This note examines the judgment in that case, and assesses the reasoning of the Irish Court.

1. Eine einseitige Schiedsvereinbarung stellt eine unangemessene Bevorteilung der durch diese Schiedsvereinbarung begünstigten Partei dar.
2. Die Ebenbürtigkeit der Parteien ist einer der Grundpfeiler des bürgerlichen Rechts. Art 6 EMRK gilt sowohl für Verfahren vor staatlichen Gerichten, als auch bei Streitigkeiten im Wege der alternativen Streitbeilegung, insbesondere der Schiedsgerichtsbarkeit.
3. Eine Partei, die durch eine einseitige Vereinbarung benachteiligt wird, ist ebenfalls berechtigt vor ein zuständiges staatliches Gericht zu ziehen, um so ihr Recht auf einen gesetzlichen Richter gleichberechtigt mit der anderen Partei auszuüben

Issues arising in the context of determining the law governing competition law breaches are numerous and complex. The situation is no different following the harmonisation of the national rules as a result of the recently adopted Directive on damages for infringements of the competition law provisions. This paper is aimed at scrutinising various such issues, in particular it deals with interpretation of the concepts found in Article 6(3) of the Rome II Regulation on the law applicable to non-contractual obligations and the related aspects of interaction between EU and national competition laws. From the scope of application ratione materiae of the mentioned conflict-of-law provision and defining the “market” as an essential component of the connecting factor lex mercati, to the functioning of the general provisions aimed at protecting public interests, the author presents the opposing views expressed in legal theory and points out the principles which should be taken into account in...

The article deals with some situations of Hague Conventions of 1905 and 1978, which directly concern the issue of applicable law to the conjugal property relations, including the aspect on matrimonial contractual relations (Part I). Part II of the article refers to some articles of civil codes of France and Germany regulating matrimonial property relations prescribed by law or/and previewed in the contract of marriage. As a result of research carries out in the article, following conclusions can be made: 1. Since 1905 to 1978 situation has essentially changed in International private Law in the aspect of law applicable to matrimonial property relations. 1978 Hague Convention #25 “Convention on the Law Applicable to Matrimonial Property Regimes” offers us new approach to the law applicable to legal regimes of matrimonial property, which is reflected in the domestic collusive legislations of different countries. 2. German legislation has shared position of civil code of France in the ...

Questions relating to sociability, relationships concerning conflicts and behaviours of indiscipline and violence among young people have turned out to be of particular importance. Various studies exist about the sociability of young people (e.g. Machado Pais, 1990; Margulis - Urresti, 1998; Cangilini, 2004). Nevertheless, studies focused on sociability and behavior in the face of socially learned conflicts in the context of inter-personal relationships are still very scarce. The investigation carried out falls within the area of Co-operative Conflict Resolution (CCR) - a field of knowledge and practices that emerged in the 1980s (Ury - Fisher, 1991; Aréchaga, Brandoni - Finkelstein, 2004). The work that we present shows the results of a study undertaken with young people attending the first year of university education in public and private universities in Argentina and Portugal. This investigation, which was of an exploratory nature, had two general objectives: i) to analyse the w...

The amendment of the universal jurisdiction principle pursuant to the Organic Law of 1/2014, 13 March limited the prosecution of drug
trafficking on high seas. Nearly five years after the coming into force of the Act, the Spanish Legislator continues to misunderstand the legal obligations related to jurisdiction and cooperation contained in arts. 4 and 17 of the 1988 UN Convention on Illicit Drugs. This situation obliges to support the controversial Supreme Court decision 592/2014, of 24 July to establish the jurisdiction of the Spanish Courts for drug crimes committed on high seas.

Είναι γνωστό ότι οι διαρκείς προσπάθειες κατάργησης κάθε εμποδίων στην ελεύθερη κυκλοφορία των δικαστικών αποφάσεων των κρατών μελών της ΕΕ έχει οδηγήσει στην περίφημη κατάργηση του exequatur, δηλαδή της διαδικασίας κήρυξης εκτελεστότητας σε ευρύ φάσμα ενωσιακών διασυνοριακών διαφορών.

Το παρόν σύντομο μελέτημα θα εστιάσει στη μεταβατική φάση από τη διαδικασία κήρυξης εκτελεστότητας κατά τον καν. 44/2001, γνωστό και ως Βρυξέλλες Ι, στη διαδικασία άμεσης εκτέλεσης κατά τον καν. 1215/2012, γνωστό ως Βρυξέλλες Ια, και στα προβλήματα που δυνητικά αλλά και πραγματικά προκύπτουν στην πράξη.

"[...] aynı cinsiyetten kişilerin birlikteliğinden kaynaklanan yabancı unsurlu bir uyuşmazlık, Türk mahkemeleri önüne geldiği takdirde, Türk milletlerarası özel hukuku açısından çözümlenmesi gereken çeşitli problemler ortaya çıkacaktır. Bu sonuç, yüksek lisans tezi olarak hazırlanan bu çalışmanın konusu olarak, aynı cinsiyetten kişilerin birlikteliklerinin seçilmesine sebep olmuştur. Çalışmanın amacı, yabancı hukuk sistemlerinde dahi sonuçlarının yeni yeni tartışıldığı ve son derece güncel bir konu olan aynı cinsiyetten kişilerin birlikteliklerinin, Türk milletlerarası özel hukuku açısından ortaya çıkaracağı hukukî problemleri ve bunların çözüm yollarını değerlendirmektir."

This book provides an unprecedented analysis and appraisal of party autonomy in private international law - the power of private parties to enter into agreements as to the forum in which their disputes will be resolved or the law which governs their legal relationships. It includes a detailed exploration of the historical origins of party autonomy as well as its various theoretical justifications, and an in-depth comparative study of the rules governing party autonomy in the European Union, the United States, common law systems, and in international codifications. It examines both choice of forum and choice of law, including arbitration agreements and choice of non-state law, and both contractual and non-contractual legal relations. This analysis demonstrates that while an apparent consensus around the core principle of party autonomy has emerged, its coherence as a doctrine is open to question as there remains significant variation in practice across its various facets and between legal systems.

The abstract presents numerous ideas that could be used to distinguish the conflict of legal rules and the normative gap. It is said that gaps in law and conflict of rules present opposing forms of legal indeterminacy. However, the unique point of intersection between legal gaps  and conflicts of norms could be uncovered when conflicting legal rules totally block the  capacity to apply either one rule or another. Moreover, none of a well-established basic
principle for resolving such conflict of norms (lex superior, lex specialis, lex posterior criteria) can be used in the above mentioned situation. Is it correct to describe the situation as a gap in law because of «mutual assured
annihilation» of the validity of any legal norm in case of absolute contradictionoflegal rules?
Some legal philosophers and theorists (e.g. B. Windscheid, P. Heck, Z. Ziembinski, J. Raz)  answer the question in the affirmative. On the other hand, different researchers (e.g. L. Fuller, N. Vlasenko) disagree with this point and try to argue the opposite statement: any conflict of  norms can not constitute a reason for the emergence of a gap in law because legal conflicts  and legal gaps are of heterogeneous nature and origin.
The latter point seems more reasonable.

The article deals with some situations of Hague Conventions of 1905 and 1978, which directly concern the issue of applicable law to the conjugal property relations, including the aspect on matrimonial contractual relations (Part I). Part II of the article refers to some articles of civil codes of France and Germany regulating matrimonial property relations prescribed by law or/and previewed in the contract of marriage. As a result of research carries out in the article, following conclusions can be made:

1. Since 1905 to 1978 situation has essentially changed in International private Law in the aspect of law applicable to matrimonial property relations. 1978 Hague Convention #25 “Convention on the Law Applicable to Matrimonial Property Regimes” offers us new approach to the law applicable to legal regimes of matrimonial property, which is reflected in the domestic collusive legislations of different countries.

2. German legislation has shared position of civil code of France in the aspect of matrimonial contract relations and paid proper attention to their legal regulation in its civil law. This made a positive influence on civil codes of Continental Europe.

3. As a result of study of norms of French and German civil law, it is possible to discuss the reasonability of translation of some regulations. Proper adaptation of legal norms of some countries can encourage creation of more flexible environment in the aspect of matrimonial property relations. In author’s opinion, it would be reasonable to continue relevant researches, which will certainly be useful for Georgian legal system.

Not very popular these days, SICAV companies are nevertheless a key of the current financial system in the UE. Their activities are international by nature. These SICAV companies attract capital from many different investors with habitual residence in many different countries, both individuals and companies. Problems arise when the invesment is not as successful as it seemed to be in the beginning and the investors try to recuperate their capital sueing the potential wrongdoer. Where might they sue the tortfeasors? Which Law should govern the issue?

This paper aims to highlight a contradiction between two international jurisdiction rules of the new Romanian Civil Procedure Code (Law no. 134 of 2010, republished, which will enter into force on July 1, 2013).
According to Article 1070 paragraph 2 of Civil Procedure Code, the objection of forum non conveniens can be invoked before Romanian courts in any stage of the proceedings, even directly in remedy, excepting the provisions of Article 1066. Article 1066 Civil Procedure Code deals with the prorogation of the jurisdiction of the Romanian courts in patrimonial cases (both by a choice-of-court agreement and by the mere appearance of the defendant). Article 1066 paragraph 2 Civil Procedure Code provides for the jurisdiction of Romanian courts based on the presence of the defendant who does not contest Romanian jurisdiction until the end of cross-examination before the first court, unless otherwise provided by law.  Because Articles 1070 paragraph 1, 130 and 131 Civil Procedure Code compel Romanian courts to check ex officio their jurisdiction at the first term when parties are legally summoned (i.e. the first term of the cross-examination) it is highly improbable for the objection of forum non conveniens to be raised before the first court at any other time than at the first term of the cross-examination.  So, in reality, the defendant has not all the cross-examination stage to decide whether he should raise the objection of forum non conveniens, but only the first term (or the first two terms) of the proceedings. Comparing the provisions of Article 1070 paragraph 2 with Article 1066 paragraph 2, both of the Civil Procedure Code it is obvious that Romanian legislator creates a vicious circle concerning the moment until which the forum non conveniens objection could be raised in patrimonial international litigation (on one hand the defendant has to raise the forum non conveniens objection during cross examination, unless otherwise provided by the law and on the other hand, forum non conveniens objection can be invoked in any stage of the proceedings, even directly in appeal, with the exception created for the defendant in international patrimonial litigation). It is high time for the Romanian legislator to take action in defining a more precise view on the moment until which forum non conveniens objection could be raised. In my view, forum non conveniens objection is a matter of capital importance that should be invoked in any stage of the proceedings and the provision on the jurisdiction of the Romanian court in patrimonial litigation based solely on the presence of the defendant should be repealed. This because it could create difficulties concerning the international efficiency of the Romanian decisions. Another option would be to impose the use of the forum non conveniens objection only at the first term of the proceedings, when both parties are legally summoned and, if dismissed before the first court, in any remedy available.