Conflicts of Law

In June 2013, the Court of Justice of the EU dealt with the compatibility of Portuguese corporate groups law, in particular the liability of the parent company, with EU law. The Court elaborated on what is believed to be an inaccurate account of Portuguese law; ignored the domestic scholarly debate on the subject matter; and consequently disregarded the indispensable coherence of the regulation of groups of companies in its entirety.

Keywords: groups of companies; freedom of establishment; liability of parent company.

The gradual introduction of a globalized marked, the mass tourism, the enactment of the four EU freedoms, and, above all, the general utilisation of e-commerce, have resulted in a rapidly growing number of cross-border contracts and thus also of cross-border disputes. In the second half of the 20th century, the protection of the consumers as weaker contractual parties has developed in national substantial and procedural rules, as well as in the field of private international law. On the EU level, special choice-of-law rules were adopted first in the Rome Convention of 1980, and then, with several modifications, in the Rome I Regulation currently in force. In Slovenia, the latter has replaced the previously applicable choice-of-law rules and applies in cases connected with other EU Member States or with third States.
The Rome I Regulation determines the scope of application of the protective rules through the definition of the notions of consumer, professional and the circumstances of the conclusion of the contract. In electronic contracts the most important condition is that the professional has directed their activity to the country of the consumer’s habitual residence. The “directing” of activity is a legal standard which has been further concretized also by the case-law of the Court of Justice of the EU, which watches over the harmonized interpretation of the consumer’s protection in the Rome I and the recast Brussels I regulations.
When the conditions for the protection in choice-of-law are met, the Rome I Regulation enacts the consumer’s habitual residence as the main connecting factor. The parties are allowed choose the applicable law, but the consumer cannot thereby be deprived of the mandatory protection from the law of the state of his habitual residence. As a result, the courts must sometimes combine the rules of the chosen law and the law of the consumer’s residence, which can prove to be a difficult task. Nevertheless, the doctrine deems that such solution is the best possible compromise between the legal and economic interests of both contractual parties.


KEYWORDS:
Consumer, consumer protection, Rome I Regulation, Rome Convention, Private International Law and Procedure Act, choice-of-law, conflict of laws, contract, electronic contract, private international law, party autonomy

Nella realtà economica e sociale si sono affermate nuove e controverse pratiche di condivisione, che offrono a chiunque la possibilità di ricercare o mettere a disposizione beni o servizi sul mercato, a prescindere dalla natura professionale o amatoriale dei soggetti coinvolti. Tali pratiche, tra loro molto eterogenee ed attinenti ai più differenti ambiti della vita quotidiana, come la mobilità, l’alloggio, l’esercizio di attività di impresa, le comunicazioni, il lavoro, la cultura, l’istruzione e le finanze, sono state ricondotte alla nozione di «sharing economy», che le accomuna in virtù dell'accesso e dell'utilizzo temporaneo di beni o servizi, agevolato dall'intervento su ampia scala di piattaforme digitali, attraverso le quali domande ed offerte vengono coordinate online al fine di condividere beni o servizi.
La legittimità degli schemi ricondotti a questo nuovo modello economico è stata contestata sotto vari aspetti, che ricomprendono la scarsa qualità delle prestazioni, la sicurezza dei consumatori, il rilascio di autorizzazioni e licenze, il pagamento di imposte e il rispetto delle regole sulla concorrenza.
È così emersa l’inadeguatezza delle norme vigenti a far fronte all’erogazione di prestazioni secondo i modelli della sharing economy.
Nonostante tali profili critici, i rapporti instaurati attraverso piattaforme di sharing economy si sono notevolmente e costantemente moltiplicati in tutto il mondo, implicando la frequente insorgenza di elementi di transnazionalità, dai quali discende necessariamente il ricorso alle regole di diritto internazionale privato, al fine di determinare la legge applicabile e il giudice competente a pronunciarsi sulle eventuali controversie.
Nella monografia si è così cercato di analizzare alcune delle più rilevanti problematiche internazionalprivatistiche, iniziando dall'inadeguatezza dell'autonomia delle parti nella regolamentazione del fenomeno, specialmente in riferimento alle condizioni generali di contratto predisposte unilateralmente dai gestori delle piattaforme, che affermano l’estraneità totale del gestore della piattaforma rispetto al rapporto tra gli utenti, ponendosi spesso in conflitto con il livello minimo di tutela dei consumatori garantito dal diritto dell’Unione e dalle legislazioni nazionali. Profili critici sono stati altresì individuati nelle modalità di conclusione online dei contratti che legano i soggetti coinvolti nei rapporti di sharing economy, nell’accertamento dell’effettività del consenso sul contenuto delle clausole di proroga della giurisdizione e di scelta della legge applicabile, nei casi di potenziali cause connesse e nella localizzazione del “domicilio” dei gestori delle piattaforme.

In the current economic and social context new and controversial sharing practices, offering anyone the opportunity to search for or make available goods or services on the market regardless of the professional or amateur nature of the persons involved, have emerged. These practices, very heterogeneous and concerning the most different areas of daily life, such as mobility, housing, business activities, communications, work, culture, communication, education and finance, have been linked  to the notion of “sharing economy”, which brings them together by virtue of temporary access to goods or services, facilitated by the large-scale intervention of digital platforms, through which requests and offers are coordinated online in order to share goods or services.
The legitimacy of schemes linked to these new economic models has been challenged in a number of aspects, including low quality of services, safety of consumers, authorisation and licensing, taxes and compliance with competition rules. The inadequacy of the existing rules to deal with the provision of services through the sharing economy models has consequently emerged.
In spite of these critical profiles, the legal relations established through sharing economy platforms are constantly increasing around the world, implying the emergence of elements of transnationality, from which derives the recourse to the rules of private international law, in order to determine the applicable law and the judge competent to rule on any disputes.
The monograph thus attempts to analyse some of the most important private international law issues, such as the inadequacy of the party autonomy in regulating the phenomenon, especially with reference to the general terms and conditions of contract unilaterally drawn up by platform operators, which state that the latter is totally unrelated to the legal relations between users, often in conflict with the minimum level of consumer protection guaranteed by EU law and by the national legislations. Critical profiles have also been identified in the online conclusion of contracts that bind the parties involved in sharing economy legal relations, in ascertaining the effectiveness of consent on the choice of forum and choice of law clauses, in cases of potential related actions and in the location of the “domicile” of the platform operators.

The donation in p.i.l. is an old problem in particular for the characterization and the current situation in certain EU Member States. This article briefly analyzes the relationship between the donation with Rome I Regulation and the recent EU Regulation 650/2012. Finally the article focuses on the Italian legal system and describes the problem, elaborating on the different solutions that might be adopted.

RESUMO: O conflito instaurado entre Rússia e Ucrânia repercute na comunidade internacional. A anexação da Criméia à Federação Russa e a existência de conflito armado requer considerações jurídicas, políticas e econômicas. Considerando essa problemática, propõe-se uma análise sobre o Direito Internacional Público, os princípios da segurança, estabilidade e previsibilidade internacionais. Diante da situação imposta pelo conflito, alvitra-se uma crítica sobre o desrespeito aos direitos humanos, a soberania das nações, como sujeitos de direitos e ao posicionamento da comunidade internacional em relação às nações envolvidas.

The need for cross-border cooperation in family matters in the European Union was identified and politically expressed already in the 1990s. The first legislative act adopted in this field was the Brussels II Regulation of 2000. It unified, on the EU level, the rules on international jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments in matrimonial matters and parental responsibility. In 2021, six EU regulations are in use in this field. In 2022, the second recast of the Brussels II Regulation will enter into application. Beside the mentioned cross-border procedural rules, the regulations also bring unified choice of law rules, while other EU regulations in the field of private international law enable simplified cross-border service of documents and taking of evidence.
The number of unified rules in cross-border family disputes is thus growing, which enhances legal certainty of the European families. However, the fragmented regulation and different temporal and territorial scopes of application of the “family regulations” result in a complex mosaic of rules, which is often unclear and difficult to apply. The paper aims to present a wholesome view of the legislation in force and provides information on the interplay among different regulations. Thus, it strives to enhance a rapid and correct application of this legislation, which is of crucial importance for European citizens. The paper also emphasises the importance of the broader context of the EU cooperation in family matters, namely the EU private international law in general, and of the international treaties in family law, especially the Hague conventions.

Virginia Code provides the authority for any person or entity to file Ethics Complaints against lawyers practicing law in Virginia and Virginia Justices and judges.

§ 54.1-3915. Restrictions as to rules and regulations.

Notwithstanding the foregoing provisions of this article, the Supreme Court shall not promulgate rules or regulations prescribing a code of ethics governing the professional conduct of attorneys which are inconsistent with any statute; nor shall it promulgate any rule or regulation or method of procedure which eliminates the jurisdiction of the courts to deal with the discipline of attorneys. In no case shall an attorney who demands to be tried by a court of competent jurisdiction for the violation of any rule or regulation adopted under this article be tried in any other manner.  Code 1950, § 54-51; 1974, c. 536; 1988, c. 765.

Hong Kong courts currently use the double actionability rule to determine whether a party has an international tort claim-the double actionability rule is lagging behind many common law jurisdictions. The purpose of this article is to argue why the double actionability rule must be abolished. The article then explores the three approaches in international tort actions, namely (a) the 'proper law' of tort; (b) lex loci deliciti commissi; and (c) the 'most favourable law' approach. All three approaches to international torts have their shortcomings, and there is no fast solution in solving choice of law issues in international torts. However, it is suggested that Hong Kong should adopt the 'most favourable law' approach, as all of the drawbacks with this approach have been attended to in this article.

A diciotto anni di distanza la Corte di Giustizia conclude il percorso intrapreso con la ben nota sentenza Centros, con la quale aveva dato avvio al processo d’ampliamento della liberta` di stabilimento (ed alla concorrenza tra ordinamenti), e giunge ad applicare i principi pronunciati in materia di costituzione all’estero di una societa` (per poi stabilirne una succursale nello Stato membro di provenienza dei soci fondatori) e di trasferimento della sede effettiva in altro Stato all’ipotesi della societa` gia` costituita della quale sia trasferita la sola sede legale in un altro Stato membro (per giovarsi della legislazione di quest’ultimo), mantenendo l’attivita` nello Stato di provenienza. La sentenza in commento e` di particolare rilievo per la riaffermazione in termini generali del principio di liberta` di stabilimento e l’ampiezza che la stessa assume anche in rapporto ai casi in cui con la deliberazione societaria s’intenda mutare soltanto – per via della modificazione della sede legale – la lex societatis mantenendo invariata la sede effettiva della societa` . L’A., accogliendo favorevolmente le statuizioni della Corte, ne sottolinea non solo la portata concreta rispetto a vari profili (ivi compresa la disciplina UE dell’insolvenza delle societa`), ma anche la rilevanza in termini ricostruttivi dell’istituto della trasformazione transfrontaliera, quale strumento di disciplina dell’ente nella continuita` dei rapporti endo ed extrasocietari

In this article, the author reveals the features and consequences of the impact of the pandemic on foreign economic and foreign trade relations, as well as on foreign economic transactions. In turn, the basis for exemption from liability related to the failure to fulfill or the inability to fulfill obligations under foreign economic transactions on the basis of force majeure circumstances caused by the worldwide spread of the coronavirus infection COVID-19 is revealed. The peculiarity of the reflection of force majeure clause in the conditions of foreign economic transactions is emphasized. The questions of legal regulation of the concepts of force majeure in the national legislation of various countries and its international legal regulation are raised. The requirements for force majeure clauses as the terms of a foreign economic transaction and recommendations for their reflection in contracts are considered.

Many commentators have noted how the courts of leading international arbitration centers — namely England, Singapore, and Hong Kong — apply divergent choice of law rules to determine the law governing the arbitration agreement. Although this may be true on the surface, this Note demonstrates that these courts have actually been applying the same choice of law rule: an in favorem validitatis rule. In light of this fact, this Note argues that the courts of England, Singapore, and Hong Kong should begin expressly adopting the in favorem validitatis rule rather than hiding it. The reason is that aspiring arbitration jurisdictions — such as India, China, and Malaysia — look to leading arbitration centers to design their own arbitration laws and rules, and consequently may be misled into invalidating arbitration agreements that courts in the leading arbitration centers would probably find to be valid.

The Encyclopedia of Private International Law quite simply represents the definitive reference work in the field. Bringing together 195 authors from 57 countries the Encyclopedia sheds light on the current state of Private International Law around the globe, providing unique insights into the discipline and how it is affected by globalization and increased regional integration. The role and character of Private International Law has changed tremendously over the past decades. With the steady increase of global and regional inter-connectedness the practical significance of the discipline has grown. And so has the number of legislative activities on the national, international and, most importantly, the European level. The Encyclopedia is a rich and varied resource in four volumes. The first two volumes provide comprehensive coverage of topical aspects of Private International Law in the form of 247 alphabetically arranged entries. The third volume provides insightful detail on the national Private International Law regimes of 80 different countries. The fourth volume presents invaluable, and often unique, English language translations of the national codifications and provisions of Private International Law in those countries.

As a process of raising monetary contributions from a large number of persons, crowdfunding may take many forms: from traditional benefit events and television fundraising campaigns to increasingly popular internet platform fundraising. The online environment in which the newest forms of CF emerge facilitates its unprecedented ability to cross borders and attract persons from various countries. This having been said, the same environment complicates legal assessment. The issues that inevitably arise in cross-border dealing are particularly intricate: which court decides and which law applies? At the outset, one must differentiate between various types of CF models. Furthermore, the tripartite structure of the CF model involving the specialised internet platforms adds another layer of complexity because the conflict of laws analysis demands the preliminary identification of legal relationships and their legal characterisation. Finally, there is a constant debate about whether investors may be legally characterised as consumers or not, which may significantly affect conclusions on jurisdiction and applicable law. In answering these questions, the author considers national and supranational legal instruments containing provisions on international jurisdiction and applicable law, with the focus on the EU ones. In the course of legal analysis, the interpretational principles set by the Court of Justice of the European Union will be taken into account. Since no such principle is directly related to the internet-based CF, they need to be assessed in terms of their relevancy and potential to be used as starting points in analogical reasoning. Besides drawing a clearer image about the conflict of laws issues for participants in CF, the aim of this article is also to assess the validity of some of the legal terms under which these participants join the CF process.

This Article explores the coexistence and dissimilarities of the external and internal functions of domicile of natural persons from both a comparative and Louisiana law perspective. The historical foundations of these connections are examined first (Part I). Next, the discussion focuses on the common-law concept of domicile, particularly its English foundations and American development (Part II), and on the civil law concepts of domicile (Part III) and habitual residence (Part IV). Finally, the main discussion turns to Louisiana’s law of domicile (Part V).  This comparison of civil and common law systems reveals that the Louisiana understanding of domicile resembles more closely the American common law model. This comparison also shows that the modern Louisiana private-law rules regulate domicile very effectively. Unfortunately, the same cannot be said with respect to Louisiana’s public-law rules, especially the rules concerning residential qualifications of candidates for public office.

This book corresponds to the dissertation presented in the University of Coimbra, Faculty of Law in October 2006 and publicly discussed in May 2007. It analyses the liability of controlling stockholders vis-à-vis the corporation and other stockholders on the basis of influence exercised over the board of directors. The first part is dedicated to a thorough dogmatic approach of the relevant pieces of statutory law, namely (but not exclusively) Article 83(4) of the Corporations Code. The second part starts with a general overview of the private-international-law characterization problems that may arise to this respect, analyses the ambit of the lex societatis under Portuguese law, and finishes with the discussion of the interplay between the Portuguese statutory rules, including the constitutional principle of equality, and European-Union rules, namely the freedom of establishment of corporations, for the latter to some extent interfere with the interpretation of the former, specially in the context of transnational groups of companies, for which Portuguese law reserves a particular statutory regulation.

This article tackles some questions of International Company Law under the Portuguese legal system, especially concerning European procedural law, conflict of laws and international commercial arbitration.
In what concerns European procedural law, attention is paid to the jurisdiction rules laid down in the Brussels I Regulation, regarding its scope of application, the fundamental general rule and the exclusive jurisdiction rule applicable to companies (art. 22, nr. 2 of the Regulation).
As far as the conflict-of-law rules are concerned, attention is given to the determination of the law governing the company (lex societatis) under Portuguese law – which traditionally follows a mitigated form of the real seat theory –, within the context of the current developments related to the right of establishment under EU law (from Daily Mail to Cartesio, passing by Centros, Überseering and Inspire Art case-law of the ECJ) and the proposals for the approval of Community-wide unified conflict-of-law rules regarding the company’s personal status.
Still, with respect to conflict-of-law problems, some specific questions are analysed, namely in what measure did the recent 2006 Portuguese Company Law Reform affect the private international law regime of groups of companies in Portuguese Company Law, for it is dubious (and herein denied) whether such substantive rules now apply to foreign (non-European) parent companies of Portuguese subsidiaries. Moreover, some interesting questions arise in the field of the applicability, by means of the conflict-of-law instrument of substitution, of several company law substantive rules to legal realities shaped by foreign law, such as, for instance, the needs (herein also denied) for an intensified supervisory legal regime for Portuguese subsidiaries of foreign parent companies, whenever such parent companies already meet equivalent requirements.
Finally, attention is given to the assessment of the arbitrability of company law disputes, under the pertinent Portuguese statutory rules on international commercial arbitration, with a special look at the possibility of settlement by arbitrators of disputes in which the validity of general meeting resolutions is challenged or the liability of directors is claimed.

In: IDET, Miscelâneas, n.º 5, Almedina, Coimbra, 2008, pp. 41-108

The Caspian Project is a weekly digital magazine organized by the online analytical resource, Modern Diplomacy. Dr. Matthew Crosston is the Senior Editor of the project, which aims to acquaint people with this critically undervalued region of the world. The analyses go far beyond the standard issue of energy and encapsulates economics, politics, culture, religion, global affairs, conflict and peace.

This edition of the Caspian Project testifies to the enormous wealth of analytical opportunity seen all across the region. While in the past we have enjoyed producing single-issue specializations (which we did over the past two weeks with The Russian Debate and The Persian Gambit, to great fanfare and applause), the true essence of the Project is to have great diversity for the readers every issue. No. 11 as it turns out is something of a hybrid of these two aspects: readers with this issue get quite a bit of diversity while also getting to enjoy a mini-specialization, as a number of the articles inside deal with different aspects of the Russian intelligence community, namely, the Federal Security Service or FSB.

So, on top of some very thought-provoking and hard-hitting articles dealing with the ethics, surveillance, and transnational activities of Russian intelligence, readers ALSO get to learn more in this issue about the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, Turkmenistan’s human rights record, and Kazakhstan’s entrance into the WTO. It is an issue, therefore, that cuts across domestic politics, global affairs, security, economics, and international organizations. This is something we at Modern Diplomacy hold dearly when it comes to the Caspian Project: so much that is happening in the world today, affecting so many countries, transects in one way or another the greater Caspian sea region. It shall always be a hub of activity and importance, far beyond the standard call about energy and natural resources.

L’établissement de la filiation, la clé qui ouvre à l’enfant la voie vers un ensemble de droits importants, suscite aujourd’hui un intérêt croissant en plan international. L’évolution des structures familiales en société et le progrès des sciences médicales ont déterminé, dans le temps, reformes sensibles des législations internes en matière familiale. Leur application aux rapports de droit affectés d’éléments d’extranéité est conditionnée par la mise en œuvre des règles de conflit de lois, dont l’adaptation aux nouvelles réalités n’est pourtant pas évidente. Dans le cadre de cette étude, nous nous proposons de passer en revue les principales difficultés soulevées par les normes romaines de DIP en la matière, analysant en quelle mesure ces dernières tiennent compte de différents intérêts en présence et comment répondent-elles aux évolutions imposées par le progrès technique et scientifique.

Probleme de conflict de legi în materia stabilirii filiaţiei
Stabilirea filiaţiei juridice, cheia ce deschide copilului calea către un ansamblu de drepturi importante, suscită astăzi un interes crescând în plan internaţional. Evoluţia structurilor familiale în societate şi progresul ştiinţelor medicale au determinat în timp reforme sensibile ale legislaţiilor interne în materie familială. Aplicarea lor în cazul raporturilor de drept afectate de elemente de extraneitate este condiţionată de jocul regulilor de conflict de legi, dar adaptarea acestora în faţa noilor realităţi nu este atât de evidentă. Articolul îşi propune să identifice principalele dificultăţi ridicate de normele româneşti de DIP în domeniu, în ce măsură ţin acestea cont de diferitele interese în prezenţă şi cum reuşesc ele să răspundă evoluţiilor impuse de progresul tehnic şi ştiinţific.

‣ ΜονΠρΘεσ 3530/2018, Εφαρμοστέο δίκαιο ως
προς τις ζημιές που υφίστανται τρίτοι

‣ ΜονΠρΘεσ 15129/2017, Εφαρμοστέο δίκαιο επί
υποκατάστασης

‣ ΜονΠρΘεσ 12352/2018, Αυτοκινητικό ατύχημα.
Εφαρμοστέο το ελληνικό δίκαιο

‣ ΜονΠρΘεσ 5503/2018, Εφαρμοστέο δίκαιο. Στενότερος σύνδεσμος λόγω προϋφιστάμενης συμβατικής σχέσης

‣ ΜονΠρΘεσ 15253/2018, Εφαρμοστέο δίκαιο αυτό
της κοινής διαμονής των διαδίκων κατά τον χρόνο
επέλευσης της ζημίας

Η αναγνώριση αλλοδαπών αποφάσεων υιοθεσίας παραμένει απροσπέλαστη για τον ενωσιακό νομοθέτη. Τα ελληνικά δικαστήρια προστρέχουν, ανάλογα με την περίπτωση, είτε σε διμερείς συμβάσεις δικαστικής αρωγής, είτε στο εγχώριο δίκαιο. Παράλληλα, κυρώθηκε και ισχύει στη χώρα μας από το 2009 η πολυμερής σύμβαση της Χάγης του 1993. Τη σύμβαση αυτή επικαλούνται σποραδικά (και ίσως λίγο αμήχανα) τα δικαστήρια της χώρας.
Στις πέντε αποφάσεις που ακολουθούν, καταγράφονται δύο αιτήσεις από Βουλγαρία και Γερμανία, και μία από Κύπρο. Η Ελληνική Δημοκρατία έχει και με τις τρεις χώρες διμερή συμβατικό δεσμό. Από την επεξεργασία των αποφάσεων προκύπτουν μερικά ερωτήματα, από τα οποία κάποια σχετίζονται αποκλειστικά με το πεδίο της διασυνοριακής υιοθεσίας, ενώ κάποια άλλα με τη γενικότερη θεματική της αναγνώρισης αλλοδαπών αποφάσεων. Θα ξεκινήσουμε από τα γενικότερα με κατεύθυνση προς τα ειδικότερα.

Italian Abstract: I Principles of European Contract Law (PECL) costituiscono una grande opera di “diritto scientifico”. Essendo stati redatti come black letter rules, essi possono servire per l’interpretazione del diritto nazionale e degli strumenti di diritto internazionale, modellare le riforme dei codici civili, incentivare la concorrenza tra gli ordinamenti giuridici, così contribuendo alla loro efficienza. Soprattutto, i PECL possono essere scelti dalle parti contraenti come legge applicabile al loro contatto, sebbene nei limiti stabiliti dalle norme di diritto internazionale privato.
L’articolo si sofferma sul rapporto tra i PECL e le norme imperative del diritto nazionale, in particolare quelle riguardanti la tutela del consumatore e la concorrenza sleale. Sono prese in considerazione le norme di applicazione necessaria e la clausola di ordine pubblico internazionale.

English Abstract: The Principles of European Contract Law (PECL) stand as a great achievement of "scientific law". Being drafted as "black letter rules", the PECL may serve to interpret national laws and instruments of international law, to design the reform of national civil codes, to foster competition between national laws, thus enhancing their efficiency. Above all, the PECL can be chosen by the contracting parties as the law governing their contract, provided that such choice does not contravene the rules dictated by private international law. The article focuses on the relation between the PECL and the mandatory rules of national law, particularly those regarding consumer protection and unfair competition. Attention is heeded to overriding mandatory provisions and to the public policy of the forum (ordre public clause).

Case law special on Rome I Regulation

‣ ΕφΘεσ770/2019, Εφαρμοστέο δίκαιο στις συμβάσεις ασφάλισης μεταφοράς εμπορευμάτων [applicable law in insurance contracts]

‣ ΕφΠειρ 276/2019, Εφαρμοστέο δίκαιο στην αντιπροσώπευση κατά την κατάρτιση σύμβασης πώλησης. Εξαίρεση από τον ΚανΡωμ Ι [applicable law in authorized representation for concluding a sales contract ]

‣ ΜονΠρΠειρ 5326/2018, Εφαρμοστέο δίκαιο σε διαδοχικές συμβάσεις πώλησης. Μετασυμβατικός καθορισμός [applicable law in multiple sales contracts;  post-contractual agreement on the applicable law]

‣ ΔΕΕ, 8.5.2019, C-25/18, Kerr, Διεθνής δικαιοδοσία και εφαρμοστέο δίκαιο σε διαφορές από κοινόχρηστα [CJEU case C-25/18]

Νομικές Διατάξεις: άρθρα 6 § 1 ΕΣΔΑ, 8 § 1, 20 Συντ., 43 § 3 καν. 44/2001, 215 § 1, 585 § 1 ΚΠολΔ

Κήρυξη εκτελεστότητας κατά τον καν. 44/2001· δικαστική απόφαση και δικαστικές διαταγές Ηνωμένου Βασιλείου στις οποίες περιλαμβάνονται κρίσεις που παρεμποδίζουν την πρόοδο των δικών που ανοίχτηκαν στην Ελλάδα, υποχρεώνουν σε αποζημιώσεις και προειδοποιούν για την υποχρέωση καταβολής αποζημιώσεων τα πρόσωπα εκείνα τα οποία επιδιώκουν την ικανοποίηση αξιώσεών τους με διαδικασίες ενώπιον της Ελληνικής Δικαιοσύνης· τα ανωτέρω κείμενα περιέχουν «οιονεί» αντιαγωγικές διαταγές διά των οποίων τίθενται εμπόδια στην προσφυγή ενώπιον της Ελληνικής Δικαιοσύνης, κατά παράβαση των προβλέψεων των άρθρων 6 § 1 της ΕΣΔΑ, 8 § 1 και 20 Συντ., τα οποία εντάσσονται στον πυρήνα της έννοιας της δημοσίας τάξεως.

Undoubtedly, the reform of the justice system is an essential pillar for strengthening transparency and credibility in institutions and building a democratic society based on the rule of law and justice. Therefore, the historical course of Morocco with its institutions and legislation has always emphasized the will of the legislator to reform the judiciary since independence to this day. This can be seen through the fundamental reforms that have taken place in several laws related to rights and freedoms. Morocco has thus shown a strong will to move towards a better judiciary to cope with the developments that the national and international arena knows. In this respect, The Charter for Reform of the Justice System is the most important station in which Morocco has translated its true will into judicial reform. If we consider this Charter, we conclude that it is divided in formality into two parts. The first part deals with the diagnosis of the current situation of justice. The second part addresses the major objectives and sub-goals of reforming the justice system.The question that can be raised here is: What are the objectives of the Charter in reforming the justice system in Morocco?

RESUMO: O conflito instaurado entre Rússia e Ucrânia repercute na comunidade internacional. A anexação da Criméia à Federação Russa e a existência de conflito armado requer considerações jurídicas, políticas e econômicas. Considerando essa problemática, propõe-se uma análise sobre o Direito Internacional Público, os princípios da segurança, estabilidade e previsibilidade internacionais. Diante da situação imposta pelo conflito, alvitra-se uma crítica sobre o desrespeito aos direitos humanos, a soberania das nações, como sujeitos de direitos e ao posicionamento da comunidade internacional em relação às nações envolvidas.

A new article by The Moscow Times revealed a mixed reaction to supposed FSB ‘vetting’ of academic scholarship. The Times, which has largely become a holding repository of intense criticism of the Russian government (and no, the irony of a media organization sharply critical of the government for infringing on media freedom has apparently not sunken in yet in Moscow), is clearly siding high on the indignation side of this issue: for the most part the article is a not-so-thinly veiled accusation of Russian intelligence services trying to basically return the country’s academic community to a Soviet-era intellectual censorship system. And while it is true there are examples of Russian academics unfortunately being subjected to investigation and even arrest, there are aspects to this story that are importantly irresponsible and propagandistic.

Yabancı unsurlu uyuşmazlıklar bakımından gerek uygulanacak hukuk boyutuyla, gerek özellikle tanıma ve tenfiz davalarıyla ilgili olmak üzere yargılama hukuku boyutuyla zamanaşımı milletlerarası özel hukukta önemli bir yer tutmaktadır. Yabancı unsurlu uyuşmazlıklarda zamanaşımı ile ilgili Yargıtay’ın son dönemde vermiş olduğu pek çok karar bulunmaktadır. Maalesef Yargıtay, bu kararlarında farklı zamanaşımı konularını birbirine karıştırdığı, esasa ilişkin zamanaşımında esasa uygulanacak hukuku görmezden gelip Türk hukukunu uygulamaya çalıştığı, zamanaşımı süresinin başlangıcı konusunda MÖHUK’un ruhuna uymayacak şekilde hareket ettiği görülmektedir. Bu çalışma ile Yargıtay’ın vermiş olduğu güncel kararlara yer verilerek, uygulamada ortaya çıkan belirsizlikler giderilmeye çalışılacaktır.

  In terms of disputes with a foreign element, prescription takes an important place in international private law with the aspect of both the applicable law and the aspect of procedural law, especially being related to recognition and enforcement lawsuits. There are many decisions given recently by Supreme Court on prescription in disputes with a foreign element. Unfortunately, it is seen that the Supreme Court has confused different prescription matters with each other in these decisions, ignored the law to be applied to the merits in meritorious prescription and tried to enforce Turkish law, acted in a manner not to comply with the spirit of Private International Law (MÖHUK). With this study, uncertainties arising in practice will be attempted to be eliminated by including current decisions given by Supreme Court.

What happens when a secret trust fails in English law? Secret Trusts are a conundrum. That is why they feature iso prominently in LLB Trust examinations. Let's take an example. Adam [a Testator age 80] contacts his friend Bruce to ask him a favour. He asks Bruce if he can be a legatee for him for a property he wishes to hold and distribute for Claire, his long-time secret lover with whom he has a child Debbie. He does not want Eve his wife to know that this property is to be held for Claire. So he swears Bruce to secrecy. He intends Bruce to hold this property cottage on the Gower Peninsula for Claire, who in turn is instructed to hold on a life interest, with residual for her daughter Debbie. Adam then dies and in his will he leaves £400,000 in cash for his wife Claire, and a cottage on the Gower Peninsula worth £180,000 to his friend Bruce. So we can see a few problems from the start. The first is has Bruce told Claire that he is legatee for her life-tenancy in the Gower Cottage and that she is told hold the residual estate for her daughter Debbie? If she is unaware of Adam's intention for her to benefit from a life interest in the cottage and residual for Debbie, , then how evidentially can this property be held for Claire? It is somewhat of a waste of time and a good lawyer would not propose such a trust solution. Furthermore, as we know from §53(1)b LPA 1925, all transfers of real property must be "evidenced" in writing. Was there any writing? But the big issue is whether this is an express trust that can be recognized consistent with §9 of the Wills Act 1837 which require compliance with formalities, absent in this case, [2 witnesses who are not beneficiaries to attest to Adam's signature on the Will]. Equity cannot allow statute to be used as an instrument of fraud. The fraud here would be that if no-one knows that Bruce holds for Claire, then Bruce can just ignore the oral trust. He can justify this by stating that §9 of the Wills Act requires a signed and witnessed will for the legacy to be valid. WHAT ARE THE STEPS FOR RECOGNIZING A SECRET TRUST.