Private International Law (Conflict of Laws)

The present chapter aims to address the role and meaning of public policy in Turkish private international law. It also elaborates on general practice of Turkish courts in application of public policy to a number of issues, including personal status, family law and law of obligations. The chapter concludes with an evaluation that advocates adoption of a more liberal approach to public policy by Turkish courts.

В статье анализируется применение норм международного частного права в юридической практике Республики Сингапур. Рассматривается место норм международного частного права в правовой системе Сингапура и их влияние на правоприменительную практику. Особенности сингапурской правовой системы демонстрируют успешное нормативно-правовое сочетание элементов англосаксонской и континентальной правовых семей, а также особое место
в этой системе норм международного частного права. Автор предлагает проанализировать особенности решения в судебной практике Сингапура вопросов, связанных с выбором места судебного разбирательства и выбором применимого права.

Οι υποθέσεις γονικής μέριμνας καταλαμβάνουν περιορισμένης έ-κτασης τμήμα της συνολικής θεματικής για την αναγνώριση και εκτέ-λεση αλλοδαπών αποφάσεων. Στο πεδίο της προσωπικής κατάστασης έρχονται τρίτες σε συχνότητα εμφάνισης, ύστερα από τις διαφορές διαζυγίου και διατροφής. Οι αιτήσεις αναγνώρισης και εκτέλεσης πρέπει να εξετάζονται στη βάση της τετραμερούς διάκρισης των νο-μοθετικών καθεστώτων, και συγκεκριμένα στα ακόλουθα τέσσερα επίπεδα: Κοινοτικό, πολυμερές συμβατικό, διμερές συμβατικό, και εσωτερικό δίκαιο (ΚΠολΔ). Θα προηγηθεί σύντομη περιήγηση στους δυνητικά εφαρμοστέους κανόνες δικαίου (υπό Α), και θα ακολουθή-σει η παράθεση της σχετικής νομολογίας (υπό Β).

The gradual introduction of a globalized marked, the mass tourism, the enactment of the four EU freedoms, and, above all, the general utilisation of e-commerce, have resulted in a rapidly growing number of cross-border contracts and thus also of cross-border disputes. In the second half of the 20th century, the protection of the consumers as weaker contractual parties has developed in national substantial and procedural rules, as well as in the field of private international law. On the EU level, special choice-of-law rules were adopted first in the Rome Convention of 1980, and then, with several modifications, in the Rome I Regulation currently in force. In Slovenia, the latter has replaced the previously applicable choice-of-law rules and applies in cases connected with other EU Member States or with third States.
The Rome I Regulation determines the scope of application of the protective rules through the definition of the notions of consumer, professional and the circumstances of the conclusion of the contract. In electronic contracts the most important condition is that the professional has directed their activity to the country of the consumer’s habitual residence. The “directing” of activity is a legal standard which has been further concretized also by the case-law of the Court of Justice of the EU, which watches over the harmonized interpretation of the consumer’s protection in the Rome I and the recast Brussels I regulations.
When the conditions for the protection in choice-of-law are met, the Rome I Regulation enacts the consumer’s habitual residence as the main connecting factor. The parties are allowed choose the applicable law, but the consumer cannot thereby be deprived of the mandatory protection from the law of the state of his habitual residence. As a result, the courts must sometimes combine the rules of the chosen law and the law of the consumer’s residence, which can prove to be a difficult task. Nevertheless, the doctrine deems that such solution is the best possible compromise between the legal and economic interests of both contractual parties.


KEYWORDS:
Consumer, consumer protection, Rome I Regulation, Rome Convention, Private International Law and Procedure Act, choice-of-law, conflict of laws, contract, electronic contract, private international law, party autonomy

Nella realtà economica e sociale si sono affermate nuove e controverse pratiche di condivisione, che offrono a chiunque la possibilità di ricercare o mettere a disposizione beni o servizi sul mercato, a prescindere dalla natura professionale o amatoriale dei soggetti coinvolti. Tali pratiche, tra loro molto eterogenee ed attinenti ai più differenti ambiti della vita quotidiana, come la mobilità, l’alloggio, l’esercizio di attività di impresa, le comunicazioni, il lavoro, la cultura, l’istruzione e le finanze, sono state ricondotte alla nozione di «sharing economy», che le accomuna in virtù dell'accesso e dell'utilizzo temporaneo di beni o servizi, agevolato dall'intervento su ampia scala di piattaforme digitali, attraverso le quali domande ed offerte vengono coordinate online al fine di condividere beni o servizi.
La legittimità degli schemi ricondotti a questo nuovo modello economico è stata contestata sotto vari aspetti, che ricomprendono la scarsa qualità delle prestazioni, la sicurezza dei consumatori, il rilascio di autorizzazioni e licenze, il pagamento di imposte e il rispetto delle regole sulla concorrenza.
È così emersa l’inadeguatezza delle norme vigenti a far fronte all’erogazione di prestazioni secondo i modelli della sharing economy.
Nonostante tali profili critici, i rapporti instaurati attraverso piattaforme di sharing economy si sono notevolmente e costantemente moltiplicati in tutto il mondo, implicando la frequente insorgenza di elementi di transnazionalità, dai quali discende necessariamente il ricorso alle regole di diritto internazionale privato, al fine di determinare la legge applicabile e il giudice competente a pronunciarsi sulle eventuali controversie.
Nella monografia si è così cercato di analizzare alcune delle più rilevanti problematiche internazionalprivatistiche, iniziando dall'inadeguatezza dell'autonomia delle parti nella regolamentazione del fenomeno, specialmente in riferimento alle condizioni generali di contratto predisposte unilateralmente dai gestori delle piattaforme, che affermano l’estraneità totale del gestore della piattaforma rispetto al rapporto tra gli utenti, ponendosi spesso in conflitto con il livello minimo di tutela dei consumatori garantito dal diritto dell’Unione e dalle legislazioni nazionali. Profili critici sono stati altresì individuati nelle modalità di conclusione online dei contratti che legano i soggetti coinvolti nei rapporti di sharing economy, nell’accertamento dell’effettività del consenso sul contenuto delle clausole di proroga della giurisdizione e di scelta della legge applicabile, nei casi di potenziali cause connesse e nella localizzazione del “domicilio” dei gestori delle piattaforme.

In the current economic and social context new and controversial sharing practices, offering anyone the opportunity to search for or make available goods or services on the market regardless of the professional or amateur nature of the persons involved, have emerged. These practices, very heterogeneous and concerning the most different areas of daily life, such as mobility, housing, business activities, communications, work, culture, communication, education and finance, have been linked  to the notion of “sharing economy”, which brings them together by virtue of temporary access to goods or services, facilitated by the large-scale intervention of digital platforms, through which requests and offers are coordinated online in order to share goods or services.
The legitimacy of schemes linked to these new economic models has been challenged in a number of aspects, including low quality of services, safety of consumers, authorisation and licensing, taxes and compliance with competition rules. The inadequacy of the existing rules to deal with the provision of services through the sharing economy models has consequently emerged.
In spite of these critical profiles, the legal relations established through sharing economy platforms are constantly increasing around the world, implying the emergence of elements of transnationality, from which derives the recourse to the rules of private international law, in order to determine the applicable law and the judge competent to rule on any disputes.
The monograph thus attempts to analyse some of the most important private international law issues, such as the inadequacy of the party autonomy in regulating the phenomenon, especially with reference to the general terms and conditions of contract unilaterally drawn up by platform operators, which state that the latter is totally unrelated to the legal relations between users, often in conflict with the minimum level of consumer protection guaranteed by EU law and by the national legislations. Critical profiles have also been identified in the online conclusion of contracts that bind the parties involved in sharing economy legal relations, in ascertaining the effectiveness of consent on the choice of forum and choice of law clauses, in cases of potential related actions and in the location of the “domicile” of the platform operators.

Due to the increasing practice of international child abduction, the Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction was published in 1980, and duly incorporated into the Brazilian legal system, with the purpose to establish a set of uniform rules to be adopted by the signatory States in order to cease the unlawful detention of an infant in a foreign territory. However, Brazil has been seen as an noncompliant country, since its Judiciary completely depletes its effectiveness when analyzing the concrete cases and amplifying the exceptions for a return. Thus, hermeneutical techniques are proposed to be observed for the salutary application of the Convention, as the Safe Return Theory.

Παρατηρήσεις στην ΑΠ 767/2019
Εκτέλεση βάσει αμερικανικής απόφασης που κηρύχθηκε εκτελεστή• η αλλοδαπή απόφαση έχει απωλέσει την ισχύ της μετά την κήρυξή της ως εκτελεστής στην Ελλάδα. Δεν ακυρώνονται αναδρομικά οι έννομες συνέπειες της κήρυξης εκτελεστότητας• ο οφειλέτης έχει δικαίωμα να ζητήσει την αναγνώριση της μεταγενέστερης έλλειψης εκτελεστότητας του αλλοδαπού τίτλου ενώπιον των ελληνικών δικαστηρίων• αν η αναγκαστική εκτέλεση έχει ήδη ξεκινήσει, δυνατή είναι και η αίτηση αναστολής• η ισχύς και η εκτελεστότητα κρίνονται και εξετάζονται με βάση το δίκαιο της χώρας προέλευσης της αλλοδαπής απόφασης• η ημεδαπή απόφαση, με την οποία κηρύχθηκε εκτελεστή η αλλοδαπή, δεν αντικαθιστά τον αλλοδαπό εκτελεστό τίτλο, αλλά επεκτείνει την εκτελεστότητά της στο κράτος υποδοχής• αν η εκτέλεση δεν είναι δυνατή για το κύριο αίτημα της αγωγής, απαγορεύεται εξίσου και για τα παρεπόμενα αιτήματα αυτής, όπως για παράδειγμα την αξίωση καταβολής τόκου. Το γεγονός ότι το ελληνικό δίκαιο προβλέπει ευρύτερο χρόνο ισχύος των ημεδαπών αποφάσεων (άρθρο 268 ΑΚ), δεν επιτρέπει τη συναγωγή υπερόριας ισχύος του κανόνα και για αλλοδαπές αποφάσεις που αναγνωρίστηκαν και κηρύχθηκαν εκτελεστές στην Ελλάδα• δεν έχει διαπλαστεί αντιφατική κατάσταση από την τελεσιδικία της ημεδαπής απόφασης που κήρυξε εκτελεστή την αμερικανική απόφαση, και την αδυναμία αναγκαστικής εκτέλεσης αυτής στην Ελλάδα, εξαιτίας της απώλειας ισχύος της στην αλλοδαπή χώρα όπου αυτή εκδόθηκε.

The donation in p.i.l. is an old problem in particular for the characterization and the current situation in certain EU Member States. This article briefly analyzes the relationship between the donation with Rome I Regulation and the recent EU Regulation 650/2012. Finally the article focuses on the Italian legal system and describes the problem, elaborating on the different solutions that might be adopted.

The need for cross-border cooperation in family matters in the European Union was identified and politically expressed already in the 1990s. The first legislative act adopted in this field was the Brussels II Regulation of 2000. It unified, on the EU level, the rules on international jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement of judgments in matrimonial matters and parental responsibility. In 2021, six EU regulations are in use in this field. In 2022, the second recast of the Brussels II Regulation will enter into application. Beside the mentioned cross-border procedural rules, the regulations also bring unified choice of law rules, while other EU regulations in the field of private international law enable simplified cross-border service of documents and taking of evidence.
The number of unified rules in cross-border family disputes is thus growing, which enhances legal certainty of the European families. However, the fragmented regulation and different temporal and territorial scopes of application of the “family regulations” result in a complex mosaic of rules, which is often unclear and difficult to apply. The paper aims to present a wholesome view of the legislation in force and provides information on the interplay among different regulations. Thus, it strives to enhance a rapid and correct application of this legislation, which is of crucial importance for European citizens. The paper also emphasises the importance of the broader context of the EU cooperation in family matters, namely the EU private international law in general, and of the international treaties in family law, especially the Hague conventions.

We can conclude that non-state rules may include both lex mercatoria, i.e. the law of international merchants, which is not perceived in any uniform way, and currently perhaps also selected rules of EU law, provided that no legal relations are involved that have no connection to the European area. Lex mercatoria can be defined as including international trade usages (such as INCOTERMS, which have become rather popular), generally recognised legal principles (for instance, pacta sunt servanda), and collections of principles governing international agreements (e.g. UNIDROIT Principles).

Lex mercatoria can be applied both in arbitration and in litigation based on four theoretical approaches. The first applicable method is subsidiary application, i.e. lex mercatoria is applied within the limits of binding provisions of applicable law – this method does not raise any problems in practice. Another possibility is application equivalent to national legal systems, i.e. based on the conflict-of-laws method. This method is currently considered controversial and is suitable for arbitration, rather than litigation. The third possibility is the preferential application of lex mercatoria – this is, however, a very extreme approach, even within international commercial arbitration, and requires the due assessment of all relevant circumstances. This category may also include negative choice of law, which postulates that the parties opted for lex mercatoria, because they did not choose any applicable law. This is, again, controversial doctrine, which may only be applied if we first take into consideration all of the circumstances of the case, and primarily the will of the parties. The fourth and last possibility is the ex post choice of law.

As concerns practical possibilities of application, the most frequently employed method is the application of non-state rules in connection with arbitration, where the courts control the proceedings for the recognition and enforcement of foreign arbitral awards. Academics agree that the recognition and enforcement of a foreign award cannot be refused, should the sole grounds for refusal be the fact that the award is based on lex mercatoria. Another possibility of applying non-state rules in courts is application based on domestic laws. The third possibility is the application of non-state rules based on the parties’ choice, i.e. the parties may opt for non-state law. Even if some of the parties disagree, it is possible to envisage the application of non-state rules in litigation, though rather as soft law, i.e. a tool or inspiration for the resolution of the given case. This would be similar to the application of foreign law or foreign case law.

We can also imagine, subject to certain conditions, the application of non-state rules in domestic disputes: (i) if the parties agree to do so, in which case, again, non-state rules would be applied within the limits of binding rules of the applicable law, or (ii) at the court’s discretion. In such case, the court should have regard for any and all circumstances, such as the parties’ experience with international trade, as well as the method of application. The application of non-state rules as soft law can be accepted without objections. Both arbitral tribunals and courts have become more open to non-state rules – for instance, the fact that a decision or award is based on lex mercatoria is not eo ipso contrary to public policy (ordre public).
The application of non-state legal standards is intertwined with the irreplaceable role of a first-rate pre- and post-graduate system of education, and with interactions between extensive practice, on the one hand, and education and training, on the other. This is the reason why schools and other educational institutions must be addressed, and such quality of lectures and courses must be emphasised that will guarantee a high level of theoretical training and high-quality and solid incentives and information from practice. The reason is that this very requirement attains qualified dimensions in the case of trade and legal usages (international, as well as national and regional). The potential of cooperation between educational institutions and international organisations mostly remains untapped – and not only those that create and apply contract templates, unify recommendations, or formulate trade and legal principles, etc.

В заключение можно сказать, что негосударственные правила могут включать в себя, во-первых, lex mercatoria, т. е. право участников международных коммерческих отношений, относительно понимания которого отсутствует единое мнение, во-вторых, в настоящее время, очевидно, и некоторые правовые нормы ЕС, при условии, что речь идет о правоотношениях, в которых отсутствует связь с европейским пространством. Составляющей lex mercatoria можно считать международные торговые обычаи (например, ИНКОТЕРМС, которые в значительной степени стали популярными), общепризнанные правовые принципы или основы (например, pacta sunt servanda) и свод принципов международных договоров (например, Принципы УНИДРУА).

Lex mercatoria может применяться как арбитражами, так и судами общей юрисдикции на основе четырех теоретических подходов. Первым является субсидиарное применение, когда lex mercatoria применяется в рамках когентных положений применяемого права – на практике данный способ применения не встречается с какими-либо проблемами. Вторым вариантом является применение, равноценное национальным правовым системам, т. е. на основании коллизионного метода. В настоящее время данный способ является спорным и применяется скорее арбитражными судами, чем судами общей юрисдикции. Третий вариант – это преимущественное применение lex mercatoria, которое, однако, является крайним случаем даже в контексте международного торгового арбитража, требующего рассмотрения всех существенных обстоятельств. Сюда также можно включить отрицательный выбор права (negative choice), когда предполагается, что стороны, не выбрав применимое право, выбрали именно lex mercatoria. И в данном случае речь снова идет о спорной доктрине, перед применением которой необходимо взвесить все обстоятельства дела и, прежде всего, учесть волеизъявление сторон. Четвертым и последним вариантом является дополнительный выбор права.

С точки зрения практического применения на первом месте (с учетом частоты применения) находится применение негосударственных правил в связи с арбитражным разбирательством, когда суды осуществляют контрольную функцию в ходе разбирательства о признании и приведении в исполнение иностранных арбитражных решений. В этом случае доктрина признает, что нельзя отказать в признании и приведении в исполнение решения иностранного суда только по той причине, что оно основано на lex mercatoria.  Следующим возможным применением негосударственных правил в судах общей юрисдикции является применение на основании национальных правовых норм. Третьим вариантом является применение негосударственных правил на основании выбора сторон, когда стороны могут выбрать негосударственное право. Даже если не все стороны согласны, можно рассматривать возможность применения негосударственных норм судами общей юрисдикции, однако, скорее как т. н. soft law, т. е. в качестве пособия или источника инспирации при рассмотрении и разрешении спора. Аналогично применяется иностранное право или иностранные документы судебной практики.

При определенных условиях также возможно применение негосударственных правил во внутригосударственных спорах. Это, прежде всего, споры, в которых стороны согласуют применение негосударственных правил в рамках когентных положений применяемого права, или по усмотрению суда. В данном случае суд должен рассмотреть все обстоятельства, например, опыт сторон с международной торговлей, а также способ применения. Против применения негосударственных правил как soft law нельзя возражать. В контексте наблюдается растущий интерес арбитражных судов, а также судов [общей юрисдикции/государственных] к негосударственным правилам, который проявляется, например, в том, что основание решения на lex mercatoria еще не означает противоречие публичному порядку.
В связи с применением негосударственных правовых норм важную роль играет качественная вузовская и послевузовская образовательная система и взаимодействие широкой практики с воспитанием и обучением. Поэтому необходимо обращать особое внимание на воспитательные и образовательные учреждения, а также на качество содержания обучения, гарантирующее как высокий уровень теоретической подготовки, так и качественные и обоснованные стимулы и сведения из практики. Именно это требование в торговых и правовых обычаях (международных, а также национальных и региональных) приобретает важность с точки зрения квалификации. В основном остается нереализованным потенциал в области сотрудничества между образовательными учреждениями и международными организациями, причем не только теми, которые занимаются созданием и применением образцов договоров, объединяющих рекомендаций, формулировок торговых и правовых принципов и т. п.

Analyse der EuGH-Entscheidung C-281/15 "Sahyouni" und mögliche Interpretationen - "Anerkennung" einer im EU-Ausland stattgefundenen Privatscheidung nach islamischem Recht und Anwendungsbereich der Rom III-VO

Interpretation of the CJEU decision C-281/15 "Sahyouni" and its possible consequences - "recognition" or acceptance of a private divorce and scope of application of the Rome III regulation

Summary
The international transfer of seat is confronted to a lack of regulation at the national,
communautary and international levels. Far from being a benign operation, the
migration of seat entails important and burdensome consequences. In some cases, it
subjects a company to the rules of another legal order, implying its transformation or the
attribution of a new nationality to the said company ; in other cases, by transferring its
seat, a company runs the risk of disappearing. These effects – transformation and
naturalisation – should however be distinguished according to the connecting factors
chosen by the State of origin and the host State in order to determine the law applicable
to a corporation. The effects should also be distinguished on the basis of the type of
migration, since the duality of the notions of   seat   is necessarily linked to the notion of
transfer. In the present state of the law, and given the incoherent position of the Court of
justice of the European Union, the lack of predictability and legal security obstructs
international transfers and prevents companies from using a useful tool for their
restructuration.

Il presente scritto analizza la categoria delle «disposizioni alle quali non è per- messo derogare convenzionalmente» a cui fa riferimento l’art. 3, comma 3, del regolamento «Roma I» come limite al principio di autonomia delle parti che ispira il diritto internazionale privato dell’Unione Europea. Dopo aver identificato quali siano le fattispecie alle quali la disposizione in esame è applicabile, l’autore spiega i motivi per i quali non è possibile procedere ad una astratta individuazione delle norme inderogabili a cui si fa riferimento ed è quindi necessario ricercare caso per caso una soluzione che bilanci gli interessi ed i valori normativi coinvolti e sia dunque basata sul criterio di ragionevolezza.

Reasonable accommodations, a concept first introduced in the United States in the context of religious
employment discrimination, is an established right for persons with disabilities under both international
and EU law. The question whether to extend a similar right for reasons of religion or belief has generated
much debate and controversy in a number of Member States. Some scholars have questioned the
appropriateness and feasibility of strengthening religious rights in the European context in light of various
cases involving “clashing rights” scenarios. Yet, in light of the existing primary legal instruments aiming
to protect and include employees from increasingly diverse religious backgrounds in the European
workplace, the concept of reasonable accommodations has various merits. This article discusses this
“added value” by comparing a right to reasonable accommodations to the legal tools of human rights
and EU non-discrimination law, and it considers the perspective offered by “deep equality” scholars in
Canada, who argue for moving beyond accommodation.

ABSTRAKT SK: Cieľom tohto odborného článku je predstaviť inštitút lex rei sitae a jeho miesto v slovenskom medzinárodnom práve súkromnom. Na začiatku vo všeobecnosti začleňuje lex rei sitae do kontextu slovenského medzinárodného práva súkromného a vysvetľuje pozadie jeho použitia, aby boli ďalšie riadky zrozumiteľnejšie. V druhej časti sa venuje pojmu vecný štatút a jeho obsahu a takisto dôsledkom, ktoré môžu v rámci neho vzniknúť počas kvalifikácie a potencionálneho vzniku kvalifikačného problému. Príspevok kvalifikačný problém analyzuje z pohľadu vecného štatútu a lex rei sitae a udáva dôvody, pre ktoré pôjde o výnimku z lex fori. Ďalej viac približuje obsah samotného lex rei sitae a jeho možné kombinácie v intenciách slovenského medzinárodného práva súkromného a vnútroštátnej úpravy. Na niekoľkých miestach súčasnú slovenskú úpravu porovnáva s aktuálnou českou úpravou, ktorá čerpá z rovnakých právnych východísk. Na konci príspevok dáva do vzájomného kontextu jednotlivé prezentované skutočnosti a pokúša sa o vyvodenie záveru s menovateľom významu lex rei sitae v podmienkach slovenskej právnej úpravy.
Kľúčové slová: lex rei sitae, hraničný ukazovateľ, kolízia, vecný štatút, kvalifikácia, kvalifikačný problém, res in transitu, medzinárodné právo súkromné

The seat of arbitration seems to be one of the most important issues to be agreed within an arbitration agreement. It directly influences a number of issues: arbitrability, determination of the governing law, whether substantive or procedural, and determination of the place for the proceedings on annulment of the arbitral award (and for the exercise of the juge d´appui and supervisory functions of courts with respect to arbitration). The examples of many countries clearly illustrate that the ideas of the denationalization of arbitration are somewhat chimerical, especially because the states desire to preserve a certain degree of control over arbitration; it also demonstrates the fact that the denationalization of arbitration generally does not even correspond to the actual interest of the parties. The reason often inheres in the greater security guaranteed in localized proceedings. Consequently, the denationalization of arbitration has never been fully implemented, and it appears that it has become a very marginal issue.

The Encyclopedia of Private International Law quite simply represents the definitive reference work in the field. Bringing together 195 authors from 57 countries the Encyclopedia sheds light on the current state of Private International Law around the globe, providing unique insights into the discipline and how it is affected by globalization and increased regional integration. The role and character of Private International Law has changed tremendously over the past decades. With the steady increase of global and regional inter-connectedness the practical significance of the discipline has grown. And so has the number of legislative activities on the national, international and, most importantly, the European level. The Encyclopedia is a rich and varied resource in four volumes. The first two volumes provide comprehensive coverage of topical aspects of Private International Law in the form of 247 alphabetically arranged entries. The third volume provides insightful detail on the national Private International Law regimes of 80 different countries. The fourth volume presents invaluable, and often unique, English language translations of the national codifications and provisions of Private International Law in those countries.

يهدف هذا المقال إلى إبراز دور المحكمة العليا الأمريكية في حل مشكلة تنازع القوانين من خلال دراسة إحكامها في هذا المجال وما تركته من أثر على الكيفية التي يتم بها فض تنازع القوانين بواسطة المحاكم الأمريكية سواء كنا بصدد المحاكم الفيدرالية أو محاكم الولايات المختلفة داخل الاتحاد الفيدرالي الأمريكي. وسنحاول هنا إبراز أن حل مشكلة تنازع القوانين، في الكثير من الأحيان، قد جاء كمحصلة لتوزيع السلطات التشريعية والقضائية المنصوص عليها في الدستور الأمريكي بين الحكومة الفيدرالية وحكومات الولايات من ناحية ورغبة المحكمة العليا الأمريكية في تحقيق العدالة المادية باعتبارها الهدف الاسمي من حل مشكلة تنازع القوانين من وجهة نظرها من ناحية أخري. وهو ما ترتب عليه تخبط الأحكام الصادرة عن المحكمة العليا الأمريكية وكذلك عن محاكم الولايات، وفتح الباب للاجتهاد القضائي لمشكلة تنازع القوانين بعيداً عن إعمال قواعد الإسناد التقليدية استنادا إلى تفسير المحكمة العليا الأمريكية لنصوص الدستور الأمريكي فيما يعرف بالثورة الأمريكية في مجال تنازع القوانين.
ولعرض ما سبق فلقد تم تقسيم هذا المقال إلى مبحثين: المبحث الأول ويتناول كيفية توزيع السلطات التشريعية والقضائية داخل الاتحاد الفيدرالي الأمريكي باعتباره مدخلاً هاماً وضرورياً لفهم كيفية إثارة مشكلة تنازع القوانين داخل النظام القانوني الأمريكي، إن علي المستوي الفيدرالي أو علي مستوي الولايات وما يحكمها من نصوص دستورية عملت المحكمة العليا على استغلالها، في مرحلة أولي، لكي تفرض حلولاً مادية لمشكلة تنازع القوانين قبل أن تتراجع عن ذلك. أما المبحث الثاني فسيفرد لدراسة القيود الدستورية التي وضعتها المحكمة العليا الأمريكية فيما يتعلق بالتنازع بين قوانين الولايات أو بينها وبين قوانين الدول الأجنبية، وكذلك فيما يتعلق بتطبيق التشريعات الفيدرالية.

International treaties therefore have priority over provisions of domestic origin (domestic lex arbitri). This mainly concerns two conventions, namely the New York Convention (1958) and the European Convention on International Commercial Arbitration (1961). In the field of international arbitration, specifically the recognition and enforcement of foreign arbitral awards, these two conventions were historically preceded by two international treaty acts. If it is possible to apply both the provisions of bilateral interstate treaties (as mentioned above, primarily the legal assistance treaties) and the provisions of multilateral conventions, then the bilateral treaties are usually prioritized as a quasi lex specialis. Mainly the reflection the bilateral treaties (legal assistance treaties), but often also the reflection of the European Convention on International Commercial Arbitration (1961) will often be omitted.

This Article explores the coexistence and dissimilarities of the external and internal functions of domicile of natural persons from both a comparative and Louisiana law perspective. The historical foundations of these connections are examined first (Part I). Next, the discussion focuses on the common-law concept of domicile, particularly its English foundations and American development (Part II), and on the civil law concepts of domicile (Part III) and habitual residence (Part IV). Finally, the main discussion turns to Louisiana’s law of domicile (Part V).  This comparison of civil and common law systems reveals that the Louisiana understanding of domicile resembles more closely the American common law model. This comparison also shows that the modern Louisiana private-law rules regulate domicile very effectively. Unfortunately, the same cannot be said with respect to Louisiana’s public-law rules, especially the rules concerning residential qualifications of candidates for public office.

The internet is increasingly becoming an area of concern due to its borderless location. This results in jurisdictional issues when torts are committed online.
My paper seeks to address this concern and provide a brief synopsis of how some commonwealth countries have legislated to provide for the criminalisation of cyber crime.

Книгата предоставя цялостно изследване на режима на свободната циркулация на съдебни решения на държави членки в Европейския съюз като обхваща всички прояви на свободното движение на решения: зачитане на удостоверителната способност на решенията без да е необходимо съдебно производство, обявяване на признаване и обявяване на изпълнение по съдебен ред, непосредственото зачитане и обявяване на изпълнението въз основа на европейските изпълнителни основания, както и изпълнението на привременни и обезпечителни мерки. Поставен е особен акцент на гражданско процесуалните проблеми и тяхното взаимодействие с въпросите по същество, които въпроси възникват в хода на производствата, като подходът към изследването е затова цялостен: както от гледна точка на европейския граждански процес, така и въз основа на трансмисията на зададените от това право модели в дейността по националното съдопроизводство. Затова с оглед на симбиозата между европейския граждански процес и националните съдопроизводствени правила е разгледан в цялост и националния режим на признаване и допускане на изпълнението и на издаване на изпълнителен лист. В уводната част са изследвани общите въпроси на правната конструкция на признаването на чуждестранни решения и прикрепването на националните правни последици.

My dissertation, entitled "The P&I Letters of Undertaking as a modern form of security for the release of arrested ships" touched on a number of areas of the law and was a comparative examination and analysis of the civil procedures pertaining to the interim measure of ship arrest in common law and civil law countries, namely England, Hong Kong, China, Singapore, South Africa, New Zealand and the USA. The dissertation examined the legal extent of bank guarantees and the mechanism of judicial guarantees in many jurisdictions and researched the business and financial implications of ship arrest in terms of money, time and satisfaction for both shipowners and claimants. The topic was particularly interesting and challenging as there is no single universal approach and the bibliography is limited. I was therefore able to adopt an original line of argument on the basis of all the available sources and suggest amendments in the standard maritime contracts in order to promote the use and acceptance of P&I LOU.

The ECJ answers to the question of the relevance –if any- of the overriding mandatory provisions of States other than the forum and that of the place of performance of the obligations, admitting that can be taken into account as matters of fact within the lex causae.

Undoubtedly copyright law is a wide subject. Hence in this dissertation I intend to examine copyright law in the context of Private International Law (PIL), in order to answer the following questions: which court is competent to rule over a cross-border copyright infringement? Which law will be applied? Once a judgment over the claim is issued, how can it be recognized or enforced in another State?
The conquests of our time, such as the absence of geographical borders – not only in terms of freedom of movement but also of technological developments, where, thanks to the Internet, time and space limits have been restricted – have increased the number of international transactions. They have also placed at everyone’s disposal a huge quantity of heterogeneous contents (whether online or not) which are protected by copyright: this implies that the chances of such protection being violated have significantly increased. Indeed, technology has made copyright enforcement difficult to achieve. Nowadays it is possible to obtain and reproduce copyrighted works without any monetary investment; hence, as technology becomes more sophisticated, copyright holders need to benefit from the highest levels of certainty and predictability in relation to the procedural regulation of a future dispute, especially when the latter has an international nature.
My analysis focuses on a PIL comparison between two regional legal systems: the European Union and the Gulf Cooperation Council. Their apparent distance from the historical, institutional and social point of view does not prevent – but rather, incentives, in my view – the study of the respective approaches to private international law and their connection with copyright law. However, it is necessary to focus on the United Arab Emirates (UAE) for two reasons. In the first place, from a practical point of view the Gulf Cooperation Council lacks a uniform legal framework in the field of private international law and copyright law: therefore, the United Arab Emirates may represent a reference model in these subject-matters. In the second place, the importance of the UAE in this context is undisputed for historical grounds and various reasons which are basically linked to their own legislative development, economic evolution and foreign relations.
The idea to compare the EU PIL’s approach to the United Arab Emirates’ one arose last year when I had the occasion to spend some months in Abu Dhabi, the capital of the United Arab Emirates, working as an intern in an international law firm. Thanks to that experience I had the chance to understand the political and institutional framework at the base of the country, the latter’s role in the Gulf Cooperation Council and the coexistence between extreme innovation and technology, and, on the other side, deep-seated traditions. Furthermore, the relatively small number of locals sharing the Country with vast majority of residents in the latter, the expats (who, in most cases, enter into contact with this country for business reasons), contributes to characterize this country.
The thesis is divided into five chapters.
The first one briefly illustrates the historical evolution of copyright law – from its inception to the worldwide affirmation through international treaties and organizations aimed at its protection – and its current regulation from a substantive point of view, with particular reference to the subject matter of protection, the rights included in copyright protection and its beneficiaries.
The second chapter provides a general overview over the main sources regulating the topic at stake, ie. the international treaties in the area of copyright, among which the Berne Convention and the TRIPs Agreement; the relevant European PIL regulations operating in relation to disputes arising out of copyright infringement; and the – limited and ongoing – legal sources on copyright law and PIL rules of the Gulf Cooperation Council and the United Arab Emirates.
The third and fourth chapters represent the central focus of my research. The third chapter deeply analyses the legal bases allowing the EU institutions to adopt instruments on private international law. It also examines, in particular, the EU approach on the two main aspects that must be considered when a copyright infringement arises at the European level: the conflict of jurisdictions, which is governed by EU Regulation no 1215/2012 (Brussels I-bis) - and the conflict of laws, governed by EC Regulation no 864/2007 (Rome II), in light of the interpretation given to them by Court of Justice of the European Union.
Finally, the fourth chapter provides first a basic understanding of the Gulf Cooperation Council and the United Arab Emirates: ie. the historical context in which they were established, their institutional and governmental structure and their economic relevance. It then presents both a benchmarking between the European Union and the Gulf Cooperation Council legal framework in order to highlight the main differences, and an overview of the United Arab Emirates’ private international law.
In my concluding remarks I transpose the theoretical content of the previous chapters into practice, by addressing a practical case of a cross-border online copyright infringement from the point of view both of an EU Member State’s court and of an Emirati court.

‣ ΜονΠρΘεσ 3530/2018, Εφαρμοστέο δίκαιο ως
προς τις ζημιές που υφίστανται τρίτοι

‣ ΜονΠρΘεσ 15129/2017, Εφαρμοστέο δίκαιο επί
υποκατάστασης

‣ ΜονΠρΘεσ 12352/2018, Αυτοκινητικό ατύχημα.
Εφαρμοστέο το ελληνικό δίκαιο

‣ ΜονΠρΘεσ 5503/2018, Εφαρμοστέο δίκαιο. Στενότερος σύνδεσμος λόγω προϋφιστάμενης συμβατικής σχέσης

‣ ΜονΠρΘεσ 15253/2018, Εφαρμοστέο δίκαιο αυτό
της κοινής διαμονής των διαδίκων κατά τον χρόνο
επέλευσης της ζημίας

Case law special on Rome I Regulation

‣ ΕφΘεσ770/2019, Εφαρμοστέο δίκαιο στις συμβάσεις ασφάλισης μεταφοράς εμπορευμάτων [applicable law in insurance contracts]

‣ ΕφΠειρ 276/2019, Εφαρμοστέο δίκαιο στην αντιπροσώπευση κατά την κατάρτιση σύμβασης πώλησης. Εξαίρεση από τον ΚανΡωμ Ι [applicable law in authorized representation for concluding a sales contract ]

‣ ΜονΠρΠειρ 5326/2018, Εφαρμοστέο δίκαιο σε διαδοχικές συμβάσεις πώλησης. Μετασυμβατικός καθορισμός [applicable law in multiple sales contracts;  post-contractual agreement on the applicable law]

‣ ΔΕΕ, 8.5.2019, C-25/18, Kerr, Διεθνής δικαιοδοσία και εφαρμοστέο δίκαιο σε διαφορές από κοινόχρηστα [CJEU case C-25/18]

Wyrok w sprawie C-350/14, Lazar, dotyczy wskazania prawa właściwego dla zadośćuczynienia dla osób bliskich ofiary wypadku drogowego. Ustalona w nim wykładnia art. 4 rozporządzenia rzymskiego II 1 opiera się na założeniu, że do tej kwestii, zasadniczo tak samo jak do wszystkich aspektów danego zdarzenia, należy zastosować jedno i to samo prawo, wskazane łącznikiem miejsca wystąpienia szkody bezpośredniej-poniesionej przez główną ofiarę (lex loci damni directi). Uszczerbek poniesiony przez osoby bliskie zakwalifikowano zatem jako skutki pośrednie tego zdarzenia w rozumieniu art. 4 ust. 1 rozporządzenia. Takie podejście nie jest wprawdzie niekontrowersyjne, zważywszy na wyraźną odrębność naruszenia dóbr osobistych członków rodziny osoby pierwotnie poszkodowanej; zapewnia ono jednak pożądaną jednolitość reżimu prawnego, który ma zastosowanie do oceny prawnej wypadku wywołującego odpowiedzialność cywilną sprawcy. Z tego punktu widzenia udzieloną odpowiedź, niezależnie od różnych zastrzeżeń, należy ostatecznie uznać za słuszną. W sprawach roszczeń z tytułu wypadków drogowych wyrok ma istotny walor również dla sądów orzekających w tych państwach członkowskich, które-tak jak chociażby Polska-stosują konwencję haską o prawie właściwym dla wypadków drogowych.
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The judgment in case C-350/14, Lazar, concerns determination of the law applicable to compensation for the relatives of the victim of a road traffic accident. The interpretation of Article 4 of the Rome II Regulation given in the judgment is based on the assumption that in principle this issue should – just as all aspects of a given event – be governed by the one and same law, determined by the connecting factor of the place of the direct damage suffered by the main victim (lex loci damni directi). In other words, the damage suffered by relatives has been characterized as indirect consequences of that event within the meaning of Article 4(1) of the Regulation. Admittedly, such an attitude is not uncontroversial, given the distinct character of the violation of personality rights of the family members of the originally aggrieved person; however, it ensures the desired uniformity of the legal regime applicable to the legal assessment of the accident giving rise to the tortfeasor’s civil liability. From this point of view, the answer, notwithstanding the various objections, should ultimately be regarded as correct. In cases of claims arising from road traffic accidents, the judgment is also of great value to courts adjudicating in those Member States which – like Poland – are bound by the Hague Convention on the Law Applicable to Traffic Accidents.

This course will explore the field of international commercial arbitration, which has become the default method of dispute resolution. Students can expect to study both Philippine and foreign commentaries, statutes and case law on the subject.  Topics include (1) an introduction to the field of commercial arbitration, now the “main” – as opposed to “alternative” – mode of dispute resolution; (2) domestic arbitration in the historical perspective; (3) UNCITRAL Model Law, New York Convention, other treaty frameworks, and their international responses; (4) the arbitration process, from agreement to enforcement; (5) judicial policing of arbitration; (6) the development of the function of arbitration in foreign investment law; (7) arbitration in state contracts; (8) making use of special opportunities for clients; (9) survey of existing Philippine laws and rules on ADR; and (10) arbitration and the Rule of Law.