Effluent Irrigation

Rapid industrialization affects the environment in different ways by discharging the large amount of effluents as waste water in the surrounding water bodies, causing the serious problems to environment. Water pollution caused by industrial effluent discharges has become a worrisome phenomenon due to its impact on environmental health and safety. The effluents of some industries were collected and samples were analyzed to assess major ionic constituents, trace metal pollution and suitability for irrigation usage. An investigation has been made to ascertain the metals concentration in the effluents samples collected from different industries located in Choto kashor, Bhaluka. This study involves determination of physicochemical parameters and trace metals of industrial effluents at different study points. The pH of the effluent water ranged from 7.5 to 9.8 with a mean value of 8.59 indicating alkalinity of water. EC of all collected effluent samples were within the range of 94.87 to 365.58 +S cm-1 with an average of 263.082 +S cm-1  indicating effluents of low salinity. The DO was within the range of 0.30 to 1.3 mg L-1 indicating that aquatic life is in under stress. Total dissolved solids (TDS) ranged from 53.68 to 267.05 mg/L. Considering TDS, all the samples were rated as fresh water (<1000 mg L-1). On the other hand, the cationic chemistry indicated that most of the samples showed dominance sequence as Na > K > Ca. Concentrations of Cu (0.0405 mg/L) and Pb (0.0003 mg/L) were found lower the allowable levels of industrial waste water. Among the studied trace metals (Cd, Pb, Ni, Cu, and Zn), the dominant metal was Zn and although the concentration varied from 0.2 to 1 mg/L, which are suitable for irrigation but unsafe for the purpose of aquaculture. Besides this, all of the effluent samples possess no Cd and Ni which comprises less the minimum acceptance level indicating there is no possibility of Cd and Ni contamination to harm aquatic organisms along with irrigation. However, the waste water of the study area can be used for irrigation hence it is acceptable considering quality for aquaculture except some sampling sites. High values of some properties of distinct samples reveals the suitability for irrigation but restricted the suitability of water in this area for aquaculture and domestic use. Moreover it demands suitable water management as well as proper treatment and possesses the necessity to pre-treat the wastes prior to release to the environment or fully treatment when the wastes will be discharged directly to surface or ground waters.

Tannery waste waters decrease the quality of water bodies into which they are discharged is of large scale environmental concern. Disposition of tanning effluents e.g. Chromium (Cr) into the environment creates inauspicious outcomes by modifying the normal physiochemical properties of soil and water. It is determined that Chromium is the principal threat whenever tanning industry derives in to practice. Cr is extremely venomous and carcinogenic to humankind, animals, vegetations and as well overall environment. The paper was executed solely on secondary information by conferring literature informants including scientific journals, conference articles document and internet site that focused on the effects of tannery waste water and assessment of alternative treatment options used to reduce, removal, retrieve or reprocess Cr from the waste water. Effective management of tannery effluent is the need of the hour. Although a lot of treatment alternatives were assessed to preclude its effect on the environment, neither of them forced out Cr completely. In some cases researchers however successful enough practicing biotechnological methods to reduce the strength and fatal state of Chromium (e.g., Cr(Vl)). Hence, treatment alternatives are either; complex, energy consuming, expensive or applicable to a indisputable portions of the world due to engineering science or proficient work force requirement. Consequently, to tackle these important challenge demanding environmental ordinance with jurisprudence implementation has to be practiced to apply improve treatment scheme which is widely applicatory. Defilers must acknowledge the environmental cost of their manufacture and treated according to polluter pay or precaution precepts. Furthermore, the general public has to be aware of it and all concerned organizations and authorities have to work hard to accomplish zero discharge level or leastwise to gain the standard limit of Chromium discharge.

Mounding often occurs beneath engineering structures designed to infiltrate reuse water. AQTESOLV software and a spreadsheet solution for Hantush, together with soil moisture water balance (SWAGMAN farm model), were used for quantitatively predicting the height and extent of groundwater mounding underground to assess the groundwater-flow simulations of infiltration from a hypothetical irrigation site. Horizontal and vertical permeability, aquifer thickness, specific yield, and basin geometry are among the aquifer and recharge properties inputs. For 2.2 ha sites, the maximum heights of the simulated groundwater mound ranges up to 0.29 m. The maximum areal extent of groundwater mounding measured from the edge of the infiltration basins of 0.24 m ranges from 0 to 75 m. Additionally, the simulated height and extent of the groundwater mounding associated with a hypothetical irrigation infiltration basin for 2.2 ha development may be applicable to sites of different sizes, using the recharge rate estimated from the SWAGMAN farm model. For example, for a 2.2 ha site with a 0.0002 m/day recharge rate, the irrigation infiltration basin design capacity (and associated groundwater mound) would be the same as for a 1.1 ha site with a 0.0004 m/day recharge rate if the physical characteristics of the aquifer are unchanged. The study claimed that the present modelling approach overcomes the complications of solving the Hantush equation for transient flow. The approach utilised in this study can be applied for other purposes such as measuring the feasibility of infiltrating water, attenuation zone, risk mitigation essential for decision-makers and planning regulators in terms of environmental effects and water use efficiency.

One of the most methods for design of surface irrigation is volume balance model. This model assumed that the shape factors are constant. This assumption causes significant errors in computations. In this paper were investigated the variations of the shape factors relative to time by Valiantzas’ method. This method is based on combination of volume balance and kinematic wave models. Results of the method as advance curve had a good agreement with field data. So the method proved that subsurface shape factor was variable relative to time and all its values were more than its constant value in initial volume balance method. The variation of surface shape factor was less than the other factor.

Arid ecosystem conditions are characterized by water scarcity offer as well due to limited water resources, low irrigation efficiency. Therefore, more efforts had to be carried out in order to find out suitable solutions for this problem and maximizing irrigation unit net return. Therefore, the aim of this investigation was to build; verify; and validate of a developed computer program under arid conditions of Egypt. A developed computer program, ISM-ES (Irrigation Systems Management-Expert System), had been coded by using visual basic 2013 programming language and access software for building up the required database. The developed rule based ES is running under windows media. Moreover, SCWU (seasonal crop-water use); SCWR (seasonal crop-water requirements); WSP (water saving percentage) and IWP (irrigation water productivity) processed as judgment indices in the verification and validation processes. Results revealed that the developed ISM-ES resulted in improving the crop-water production as function of tomato crop and maximize the water unit productivity compared with other ES (IMOC-ES) and conventional treatment based on FAO concepts by using program (CropWat 8.1). Results indicate that SCWR had been decreased under investigated ISM-ES compared with the conventional method approved by FAO at all times of investigations. Meanwhile, there is no significant difference between IMOC-ES and conventional method approved by FAO. On the other hand, by applying the (ISM-ES) to determine the SCWR found that a significant difference. Moreover, data analysis indicated that the developed ISM-ES and IMOC-ES had saved the irrigation water with about 20.49 and 4.88 % compared with conventional method approved by FAO, respectively.

The main objective of the furrow irrigation is appropriate selection of planning and managerial variables. These variables are: the furrow length, flow rate to the furrow and cut-off time. These variables are computed through optimization based on minimizing the total irrigation cost and maximizing the application efficiency of irrigation. The objective function has been formed based on costs of the water, worker and head ditch and furrow digging. Therefore, in the objective function, an equation should be
considered for computing the water advance period in a clear and precise manner. Since none of the exact methods used for planning furrow irrigation like zero inertia, compute the advance time explicitly, thus in this research the Valiatzas equation has been used which has been deduced from the results of the zero inertia model. In the objective function, in addition to the planning variables, soil characteristics, furrow and net irrigation requirement have been included. Therefore, the design variables and
irrigation efficiency can be computed for each type of soil and specific plant. A sample of this design has been presented in this paper.

Farm dairy effluent is irrigated onto pasture in New Zealand to avoid treated effluent discharges to water and to utilise effluent for productive purpose. However, if not applied at the appropriate rate there may be ground water contamination as a result of nitrate leaching. This paper was a pioneer paper in New Zealand which attempted to model and determine a sustainable nitrogen loading rate for farm dairy effluent irrigation for a range of soils and aquifers.

South Sinai, Egypt is considered one of the most severe governorates for water scarcity. The current work aims to optimize irrigation requirements for almond trees (Prunus dulcis, syn. Prunus amygdalus, var. nonpareil) in the El-Tor area, South Sinai. Climate data of the El-Tor area was collected from 2010 to 2014 to calculate evapotranspiration. Two evapotranspiration equations were used in this work: Penman-Monteith (complex radiation equation) and Blaney-Criddle (simple temperature equation). Regression analysis was done between the two equations to determine their agreement and calculate a correction factor in order to make the Blaney-Crid-dle equation more accurate under South Sinai conditions (modified Blaney-Criddle). Irrigation requirements for one-to five-year-old almond trees in South Sinai were also calculated for the last five years. This study helps the almond farmers estimate the irrigation requirements by using maximum and minimum temperature (Blaney-Criddle) instead of using many climatic parameters (Penman-Monteith). The R2 regression analysis between the two tested equations was 0.95, which means that the suggested correction factor can be used with great confidence. Although there were significant differences between ETo values calculated using Penman-Monteith and Blaney-Criddle, there were no significant differences between the modified Blaney-Criddle (with the correction factor) and Penman-Monteith. This study recommends the use of the modified Blaney-Criddle equation for almond farmers who don't have access to the extensive climate data needed for Penman-Monteith, such as wind speed, relative humidity, sunshine hours and solar radiation. The output of this study is the accurate estimation of monthly irrigation requirements for almonds grown in South Sinai.

The humongous load on the environment due to the expulsion of textile dye wastewater has always been a major issue. Significantly, the dye is present in the wastewater due to its complex chemical structure, making it a recalcitrant pollutant. Therefore, becoming highly noxious to flora and fauna of the aquatic ecosystems and crop plants. Due to the low biodegradability, dyes are carcinogenic and mutagenic to plants and human beings. Various physicochemical strategies to treat textile effluent have been used, but because of several drawbacks, they are not implemented by most industries. Microbial decolorization is more eco-compatible and economical as it does not produce any intermediate by-products. Also, it can mineralize the dyes completely and efficiently. Microbes like bacteria, fungi, and algae possess enzymes capable of degrading dyes. These organisms are now in trend with the utilization of mixed culture in comparison to the use of individual strain. Bioremediation of pollutants reduces the toxicity from the soil and water source so that water used for irrigation will no longer be harmful to the plants and eventually to us.

Seepage problem and channel transition efficiency is one of the most important issues in managing and exploiting irrigation networks. Seepage rate should be minimized in the design and construction of irrigation channels. Anyway several methods have been represented to calculate seepage rate. Some methods that are numeral have their own complexity, and some methods are empirical. Due to the fact that the nature of the flow in the channels and the seepage of the walls are spatially varied flow, in this study, the governing dynamical equation is used and combined with the Chahar and Swamee equation. The final differential equation is solved by finite difference method (FDM), and the depth and flow rates of different cross sections of a channel are obtained. From the difference of flow rate in two cross sections, the seepage flow rate can be calculated. The information required for this method is the flow rate and flow depth at a downstream control channel, the hydraulic conductivity of the channel bed, the geometric characteristics of the channel, and the distance between the water table and the bottom of the channel. This model can be used for calculation of the transmission efficiency too.

Global freshwater scarcity is imposing the demand for using non-conventional water resources for irrigation and non-irrigation purposes. Direct reuse of treated wastewater for agricultural irrigation is a widespread practice in arid and semi-arid regions, because of water shortage and scarcity. Water scarcity and the need for ecological sustainability have led to the introduction of treated wastewater as an additional water resource in the national water resources&#39; management plans of Mediterranean countries. The use of wastewater for irrigation is an important tool for water resources&#39; supplement. However, the reuse of effluent in irrigation can have negative impacts on crop quality and soil conditions, as well as on public health and the environment. Furthermore, inappropriate management of agricultural irrigation with treated wastewater can also pose problems for plant production and the physical and chemical properties of soils. This paper presents some approaches to und...

A waste stabilisation pond (WSP) system formed
by two anaerobic ponds, a facultative pond and a maturation
pond was studied from December 2003 to September 2004 in
north-western Spain in order to evaluate its efficiency in the
removal of faecal indicator bacteria (total coliforms, Escherichia
coli, faecal streptococci), coliphages, helminth eggs
and protozoan (oo)cysts (Cryptosporidium and Giardia).
Furthermore, sediment samples were collected from the
bottom of the ponds to assess the settling rates and thus
determine the main pathogen removal mechanisms in the
WSPs system. The overall removal ranged from 1.4 log units
for coliphages in the cold period to 5.0 log units for E. coli in
the hot period. Cryptosporidium oocysts were reduced by an
average of 96%, Giardia cysts by 98% and helminth eggs by
100%. The anaerobic ponds showed significantly higher
surface removal rates (4.6, 5.2 and 3.7 log (oo)cysts/eggs
removed m−2 day−1, respectively) than facultative and
maturation ponds. Sunlight and water physicochemical
conditions were the main factors influencing C. parvum
oocysts removal both in the anaerobic and maturation ponds,
whereas other factors like predation or natural mortality were
more important in the facultative pond. Sedimentation, the
most commonly proposed mechanism for cyst removal had,
therefore, a negligible influence in the studied ponds.

Global freshwater scarcity is imposing the demand for using non-conventional water resources for irrigation and non-irrigation purposes. Direct reuse of treated wastewater for agricultural irrigation is a widespread practice in arid and semi-arid regions, because of water shortage and scarcity. Water scarcity and the need for ecological sustainability have led to the introduction of treated wastewater as an additional water resource in the national water resources&#39; management plans of Mediterranean countries. The use of wastewater for irrigation is an important tool for water resources&#39; supplement. However, the reuse of effluent in irrigation can have negative impacts on crop quality and soil conditions, as well as on public health and the environment. Furthermore, inappropriate management of agricultural irrigation with treated wastewater can also pose problems for plant production and the physical and chemical properties of soils. This paper presents some approaches to und...

The aim of this study was to assess the effect of applying different irrigation levels and soil mulches on vegetative growth, yield and water use efficiency (WUE) of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) valor cultivar. The experiment was carried out during two successive seasons of 2010/2011 and 2011/2012 under open field conditions in El-Bossily farm, Agricultural Research Center, El-Beheira Governorate, Egypt. The experimental design was split plot and consisted of three irrigation levels as main plots and three soil mulches as sub-plots with three replicates. Drip irrigation was practiced at 50, 75 and 100% of irrigation requirements (IR). The soil mulches consisted of black (PE-B) and transparent (PE-T) polyethylene as well as rice straw (RS). In both seasons, the application of different irrigation levels and mulch treatments affected significantly potato vegetative growth, tuber yield and nutrients content (N, P and K). The use of PE-B mulch resulted in significantly higher values of...

Global freshwater scarcity is imposing the demand for using non-conventional water resources for irrigation and non-irrigation purposes. Direct reuse of treated wastewater for agricultural irrigation is a widespread practice in arid and semi-arid regions, because of water shortage and scarcity. Water scarcity and the need for ecological sustainability have led to the introduction of treated wastewater as an additional water resource in the national water resources&#39; management plans of Mediterranean countries. The use of wastewater for irrigation is an important tool for water resources&#39; supplement. However, the reuse of effluent in irrigation can have negative impacts on crop quality and soil conditions, as well as on public health and the environment. Furthermore, inappropriate management of agricultural irrigation with treated wastewater can also pose problems for plant production and the physical and chemical properties of soils. This paper presents some approaches to und...

Global freshwater scarcity is imposing the demand for using non-conventional water resources for irrigation and non-irrigation purposes. Direct reuse of treated wastewater for agricultural irrigation is a widespread practice in arid and semi-arid regions, because of water shortage and scarcity. Water scarcity and the need for ecological sustainability have led to the introduction of treated wastewater as an additional water resource in the national water resources&#39; management plans of Mediterranean countries. The use of wastewater for irrigation is an important tool for water resources&#39; supplement. However, the reuse of effluent in irrigation can have negative impacts on crop quality and soil conditions, as well as on public health and the environment. Furthermore, inappropriate management of agricultural irrigation with treated wastewater can also pose problems for plant production and the physical and chemical properties of soils. This paper presents some approaches to und...

A new and relatively precise method was developed for correct design of pressurized irrigation laterals installed on sloping land with constant diameter. This method is combination of analytical and optimization methods. By the method minimum and maximum pressure and range of its
variations can be calculated. On base of this calculations optimal length of lateral is determined, so that the range of pressure variations is not more than its allowable value. Results of this paper were presented as a table in order to guide line of design. It showed that two types of pressure distributions for laterals installed on sloping land. The first type occur when the pressure is decreasing and then
increasing and thus there is a point for relative minimum pressure on lateral. In this distribution, difference between elevations of two ends of lateral to energy loss ratio is less than 2.852. If this ratio be more than 2.852, the second type distribution. In this distribution the pressure is increasing and reaches to its maximum value at end of lateral.

Global freshwater scarcity is imposing the demand for using non-conventional water resources for irrigation and non-irrigation purposes. Direct reuse of treated wastewater for agricultural irrigation is a widespread practice in arid and semi-arid regions, because of water shortage and scarcity. Water scarcity and the need for ecological sustainability have led to the introduction of treated wastewater as an additional water resource in the national water resources’ management plans of Mediterranean countries. The use of wastewater for irrigation is an important tool for water resources’ supplement. However, the reuse of effluent in irrigation can have negative impacts on crop quality and soil conditions, as well as on public health and the environment. Furthermore, inappropriate management of agricultural irrigation with treated wastewater can also pose problems for plant production and the physical and chemical properties of soils. This paper presents some approaches to understand the impacts of reusing treated wastewater. It also presents a critical analysis of the treated wastewater’s reuse for irrigation in the Occupied Palestinian Territories (OPT), while shedding light on the water status in the OPT. The paper investigates the wastewater treatment and reuse for agricultural irrigation, especially in the lack of control of Palestinians on their own freshwater resources in the OPT.

FOR CITATION:
Salem, H.S., Yihdego, Y., and Muhammed, H.H. (2021). The status of freshwater and reused treated wastewater for agricultural irrigation in the Occupied Palestinian Territories. Journal of Water and Health. jwh2020216. Volume 19.1. page 120- 158.
https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2020.216.
https://iwaponline.com/jwh/article/doi/10.2166/wh.2020.216/78664/The-status-of-freshwater-and-reused-treated

One of the most methods for design of surface irrigation is volume balance model. This model,assumed that the shape factors are constant. This assumption cause significant errors in computations. In this paper was investigated the variations of the shape factors relation to time by Valiantzas’ method. This method based on combination of volume balance and kinematic wave models. Results of the method as advance curve had a good agreement with field data. So the method proved that subsurface shape factor was variable relation to time and all its values was more than its constant value in initial volume balance method. The variation of surface shape factor was less than the other factor.

While there are only approximately 400 dairy farms in the Otago Region, New Zealand, most of the farms are high producing farms by New Zealand standard resulting in Otago Region being the fifth largest milk solid producer. By the requirement of the regional farm dairy effluent regulation, all dairy farms are required to apply their farm dairy effluent onto pasture under certain specifications. All farms are visited and inspected by the regional authority annually and in addition any complaints from the community regarding any illegal effluent discharges are also promptly visited and investigated. This paper illustrates how stringent enforcement of the regional farm dairy effluent regulations can yield impressive compliance results.

Irrigation with wastewater can strongly contribute to the reduction of water abstraction in agriculture with an especial interest in arid and semiarid areas. However, its use can have drawbacks to both soil and micro-irrigation systems, especially when the total solids in the wastewater are high, such as in digestate liquid fractions (DLF) from plant material. The aim of this study was thus to evaluate the performances of a serpentine shaped micro-emitter injected with a hydrocyclone filtered DLF (HF-DLF) from corn + barley biomass and evaluate the traits of the liquid released within a 8-h irrigation cycle. HF-DLF was injected at 10%, 25%, and 50% dilution compared to tap water (at pH = 7.84) and the system performances were measured. No clogging was found, which likely depended on both the shape of the emitter and the high-pressure head (200 kPa). HF-DLF dilution at 10%, 25%, and 50% consisted in +1.9%, +3.5, and −4.9% amount of liquid released compared to the control. Fluid temperature during irrigation (from 9:00 to 17:00) did not explain the difference in the released amounts of liquid. In 10% HF-DLF % and 25% HF-DLF, a pH difference of + 0.321 ± 0.014 pH units compared to the control was found, and such difference was constant for both dilutions and at increasing the time. In contrast, 50% HF-DLF increased pH by around a half point and such difference increased with time. Similar differences among treatments were found for the total solids in the liquid. These results indicate that 50% HF-DLF was accumulating materials in the serpentine. These results suggest that a low diluted HF-DLF could directly be injected in irrigation systems with few drawbacks for the irrigation system and contribute to water conservation since such wastewater are available from the late spring to the early fall, when water requirements are high.

Accurate measurements of hydraulic characteristics of flow are needed for design and evaluation of irrigation systems. For measuring flow, flumes are commonly used. is in order to obtain accurate readings for flow measurement, flumes should not be submerged and the upstream flow should not be affected by the downstream flow. This study investigates a proper way to install trapezoidal flumes that can be applied in many ways to measure in flow and outflow discharge in furrow irrigation systems. During sixty field operations, it was discovered that the flume has to be installed at least four centimeters above the bottom of furrow, in addition to the alignment on each side. This is essential for proper functioning of the flume under the conditions of free flow., Measurements made showed that if flume was held four centimeters above the bottom, the percentage of submergence in different depths of water, had met the standard rate (lower than 70% submergence), and hence the percentage of the error in flow measurement was reduced. In order to ensure the free flow in the trapezoidal flume, the large number of field operations showed that the entrance of the flume, which is used to analyze the inflow, has to be installed at a height of four centimeters or more above the bottom of furrow, with the condition that its entrance borders are strengthened. The exit of the flume should also be firmly fixed on the bottom of furrow in order not to impede the passage of flow, with the condition that beneath the flume the furrow bottom should be made deeper in order to create free flow. These recommendations are important, especially in furrow irrigation systems.

Similarly to most of Mediterranean EU member states, Portugal regularly experience severe water supply and demand imbalances, particularly in the summer months.
Tourism is a very important economic activity in Portugal and is pushing water demand particularly in regions suffering occasional water deficit, like the southern half part of Portugal mainland. Golf courses are an important tourist factor contributing to water demand rising. A number of golf courses are installed in tourist areas and need high amount of water for irrigation.
Water reuse is a very important management strategy in situations of water scarcity. Portugal badly needs to include treated wastewater as a dependable resource in the nation water resources management. Sustainable water reuse requires technical guidelines to ensure the public health and environmental protection but the economic sustainability is crucial for the success of water reuse projects as a strategy of water conservation. This paper briefly presents Portuguese guidelines on water reuse focusing mainly on the aspects to be taken into account in the assessment of the economic viability of water reuse projects, such as the model of tariff structure, the costs to internalise, share of costs among users and recovery of investment costs.

In order to optimize the usage of water in agriculture, it is necessary to increase the efficiency of irrigation systems, especially those of surface irrigation. One of the steps to be made to achieve this goal is the optimal design of surface irrigation. It this article the design variables of furrow irrigation, that includes length of furrow, inflow rate and irrigation time (time of cutoff), were calculated to minimize the irrigation costs, the objective function, and to obtain a maximum application efficiency. The objective function encompasses water, labor, head ditch and furrow digging (ditch constructions) costs. Labor cost is irrigation time&#39;s function and the latter is dependent on water advance period in the furrows. Therefore, it is necessary for the objective function to apply explicit and accurate equation in order to calculate time of advance. Because in none of the accurate methods for furrow irrigation design, such as zero-inertia modeling, the advance time is exp...

Irrigation with wastewater can strongly contribute to the reduction of water abstraction in agriculture with an especial interest in arid and semiarid areas. However, its use can have drawbacks to both soil and micro-irrigation systems, especially when the total solids in the wastewater are high, such as in digestate liquid fractions (DLF) from plant material. The aim of this study was thus to evaluate the performances of a serpentine shaped micro-emitter injected with a hydrocyclone filtered DLF (HF-DLF) from corn + barley biomass and evaluate the traits of the liquid released within a 8-h irrigation cycle. HF-DLF was injected at 10%, 25%, and 50% dilution compared to tap water (at pH = 7.84) and the system performances were measured. No clogging was found, which likely depended on both the shape of the emitter and the high-pressure head (200 kPa). HF-DLF dilution at 10%, 25%, and 50% consisted in +1.9%, +3.5, and −4.9% amount of liquid released compared to the control. Fluid tempe...

The olive (Olea europaea) oil industry is experiencing a transition from traditional rain-fed to intensively managed irrigated orchards. Moreover, since fresh water resources in typical olive cultivation regions are often scarce, alternative water sources, often marginal in quality, are increasingly used for the irrigation of olives. Utilization of reclaimed wastewater (RWW) increases the susceptibility of olive trees to osmotic stress

Wastewater treatment by land has been popular in New Zealand with the interest of avoiding or minimising treated industrial, farm and municipal wastewater discharges to water. There are also added financial benefits whereby crops, pasture or forestry growth could be boosted by wastewater application to land. However, the concept of land treatment has several threats which require overcoming for the successful utilisation of the land treatment systems.