Islamic Pottery and Ceramic

The Nizari Ismailis occupied the Qumis province for about two centuries, and their importance in the area after Alamut and Quhestān led to numerous forts being captured. One of the most famous fortress of the Ismaili state of Iran in the Qumis province is Mehrin or Mehrnegār. Only a few historical sources provide us with information about this fortress, based on which the Ismaili control over the area at the end of the 11th century resulted in the capture and restoration of the Mehrnegār fortress. Mehrnegār Fortress has been the object of studies. However, part of the fortress is still unexplored. The present research examines the relationship between the two parts of the fortress, as well as the main sector for the first time by collecting information from historical sources, using inferential analysis and archaeological field surveys. The research attempts to show that Mehrnegār Fortress was built in two parts and on two neighbouring peaks (the main part in the east and the small fort/watch tower in the west). This is in line with the surface pottery and historical sources. According to the archaeological evidence, the fortress was first built in the Parthian period. With the Mongol invasion in the middle of the 13th century, the presence of the Ismailis in this fortress came to an end. Historical sources relate that the fortress was destroyed along with a number of other strongholds in the region, probably during the Timurid period. The Mehrnegār fortress was important in the Parthian and Sasanian periods due to its proximity to Qumis (Parthian Hecatompylos?) and its location on the most suitable road connecting Qumis to Hyrcania. In the Islamic period, its strategic role on the road from Dāmghān to Astarābād and Shahriārkouh was significant for the Nizari Ismailis.

This paper aims to a preliminary analysis of the Palermo ceramics productions, which, not attested in the late IX-early X century contexts recently reviewed, can be dated from the immediately following period, namely during the tenth century. In continuity with the approach we used to examine the Islamization processes underlying the first productions (Arcifa and Bagnera 2018), useful elements are analyzed to allow the different registers and cultural influences composing the productive horizon of the capital of the Sicilian emirate to be highlighted. By focusing on some key arguments related both with the morphological and decorative repertoires and the manifacturing techniques as indicators of wider processes, new research paths emerge towards three main directions:
a) measuring the maintenance and / or changes of the previous, preislamic components within the new production framework, as well as the possible intervention of new inputs; b) to identify the main articulation features of the Palermo productions and workshops; c) to assess how and to what extent the productive reality of Palermo fits whithin the networks, circuits and relationships dynamics defining the main ceramic horizons of the 9th-10th century Islamic world.
KEYWORDS: Islamic Palermo pottery productions, pottery kilns typologies, painted
wares, glazed wares, Byzantin, Fatimid, Abbasid, East Mediterranean, Ifrīqiya, Iraq, Iran

Less historical sites can be found in Islamic lands without incised through slip wares. This type due to the variety of its designs, motifs and comparative ease of the production, has been manufactured and used in the important Islamic pottery centers specially during fourth till seventh centuries of Hijri. This is why Researchers call it as “Traditional Pottery of Islamic Lands”. Researchers confess that Throughout the Islamic territory, either based on its variety the technique and Motifs and its quantity is unique in Iran. while the classifications are ineffective and are not based on scientific information so the present research tries to reconsider the method of construction and decorating this type of pottery on the one hand and the findings of the exploration of the sites and important centers for the production of pottery in Iran in other hands, suggests some classification, and comprehensive dating of this type based on ways of making this type of pottery, Studies have been conducted on this type in Iran how it can stablish a scientific manner and the interoperability for all pottery pieces and sherds in different sites. This research has been done in this field through the collecting of information in different Libraries and comparison and identification of the findings in Archaeological sites which related to this field. The research questions include: What classification can be considered for the type of Incised through slip ware (Sgraffiato) that can cover all the samples obtained from this type of pottery throughout Iran? Or in which centuries this type produced more or for how long has it been produced in Iran? The present study was conducted through collecting information via library and field studies of findings in this field. The results of this research indicate that the classification with regard to technical and decorative properties together can be the most comprehensive classification possible, and in this regard, three general decorative styles Introduced: Incised through slip with a few sub-styles, Champlevé, and combination style. Also, unlike the opinion of most researchers whom consider time of making this pottery is limited to the 4th-7th centuries A.H, now we know that this type of pottery was produced in Iran at least until the Safavid period.
Keywords: Pottery (Ceramic), Incised Through Slip (Sgraffito), Excised-Slip (Champlevé), Splashed, Lead Glaze.

Introduction
Carved decoration is undoubtedly one of the most common methods of decorating pottery at all periods around the world. However, using of slip or engobe for covering dishes and pots also has a long history. This coating, in addition to the impermeability of the surface of the pottery and covering its pores and holes, has acted as an appropriate background for decorating such as painting, polishing, burnishing, and cutting the motifs.
At the same time as the period of the proto writing (the first millennium B.C.) and the entrance of the Aryan to the Iranian plateau, due to the need for mass production and acceleration in decorating, the pottery was decorated with a carved decoration instead of painted pottery. The process of using of colored slips and carving on them continued in the historical period until the introduction of the Islamic era, the Iranian pottery industry, influenced by the cultural, religious and social new atmosphere, began to flourish. Factors such as influencing and applying the experience of artists of other nations, and the most importantly the using of the scientific potential of Muslim scholars, especially chemists, led to the progressive and gradual improvement of the quality and quantity of pottery industry in Islamic era especially in the fourth to seventh centuries AH.
During this period, works and objects of pottery were produced and presented in a variety of types. This variation was particularly clear in glazed pottery, among which type of “Incised through slip ware” which was known among the archeologists of the Islamic era as “Sgraffiato”, was one of the most widespread, most used and diverse technologies. Less historic sites in the Islamic world can be found without the pieces of Incised through slip ware (Sgraffiato).
This type of pottery was built and consumed due to its considerable diversity of design, pattern, color and comparative ease of construction, in the major fields of the pottery industry throughout the Islamic world, especially during the 4th to the 7th A.H. Therefore, researchers call it as “Traditional Pottery of Islamic Lands” so it is considered one of the most important types of pottery in the Islamic world. Researchers confess that Throughout the Islamic territory, either based on its variety the technologies and motives and its quantity is unique in Iran. Despite the rich history of this technology, during a century that has been studied with a number of studies, it has not been dealt with in a good way, and the present classifications for it have not been based on scientific principles from the outset and even all the pieces of ceramics have been obtained. Therefore, the authors have attempted to present a typology in this area with the aim of eliminating some of the shortcomings in the classification of this type of pottery in the field.
The classification is the result of studying and reviewing of the available scientific and archaeological reports of major and main historical sites inside and outside Iran, which are in the cultural domain of Iran on the one hand, and considering the way of making and decorating in this type of pottery on the other hand. The questions raised in the current research are: What classification can be considered for the type of Incised through slip ware (Sgraffiato) that can cover all the samples obtained from this type of pottery throughout Iran? Or in which centuries this type produced more or for how long has it been produced in Iran?  Data collection was done in library and field research, and the research method based on characteristics of the subject is descriptive-analytical methods.

Main Part
It has to be mentioned that the most important classification belongs to Arthur Upham Pope. He proposed three groups of Aqkand or Zanjan, Amol and Champlevé or Garus to rule the studies of this species. He laid pottery in museums and art collections which had not been obtained from scientific excavations as the foundations of each of the categories in his classification, so the origin of none of them was well defined and was provided by the dealers and traders of antique presented them in the cultural property market. The objects could only be accepted in the most optimistic aspect from Iran. Another weakness and defect of this classification was the use of heterogeneous terms for sub-collections, which sometimes referred to the region (such as Aqkand or Amol or Garus) and sometimes to technology (such as Champlevé)
Therefore, relying on the style and implementation of decorative technology and in order to organize the study of the type of “ Incised through slip ware “and based on studies and related findings in different regions of Iran, we can have three general styles with sub-sections for Incised through slip ware or sgraffiato in Iran. Style 1- The Linear Incised through slip ware with four minor groups. This is the group with 4 subsets, which is the largest and most comprehensive style in Sgraffiato: The Linear Incised through slip ware with splash glaze, plain linear incised ware, linear incised ware with monochromatic coloring and linear incised ware with colorful coloring. This style is the largest and most comprehensive Stroke style. Style 2 - Excised-slip or champlevé. Style 3 – Combination of linear incised with excised through slip.

Conclusion
the Incised through slip wares as one of the most widespread types of pottery in the Islamic world requires general categories applicable to the major production centers. Furthermore, according to the temporal and spatial distribution of this type in Iran and its significant variation across the whole country, the classification conducted must be generalizable to all the different areas. Therefore, the Incised through slip wares of Iran are classified under three general groups of “The Linear Incised through slip”, “Excised-slip or champlevé” and “combined style” each of which has a few subgroups.
From the point of view of the chronology of this type, Famous Scholars and researchers as Fehervari, Allan, Grube, Soustiel, or Schnyder they all believe that the Incised through slip ware or sgraffiato pottery and its subgroups in the Islamic lands has been extensively produced and distributed from the late third century to the seventh century AH. and it has been stopped producing at the same time as the Mongol invasion in 7th century AH. They also believe that manufacturing this type of pottery has been replaced by other types such as Lakabi or Silhouette in next centuries.
However, recent research in some areas such as Andej or Fortress of Hasan Sabah both in Alamut area of Qazvin, based on studies of Forms of dishes and thermoluminescence dating experiments, confirmed that this type was continually produced in a large-scale by at least the eleventh century A.H. and the Safavid period, that is, several centuries after the time determined for its production. Therefore, the production of the Incised through slip ware or sgraffiato ware was not stopped at the same time as the Mongol invasion to Iran, but also continued in most of the major areas in Iran. Thus, the dating of this type of pottery in the study of the Islamic pottery needs fundamental changes and revisions.

Keywords: Pottery (Ceramic)  Incised Through Slip (Sgraffito)  Excised-Slip (Champlevé)  Splashed  Lead Glaze.

Iran's pottery peaked during Saljuq and Kharazmshahi eras, producing high-quality wares, decorated with miniatures. They were aesthetically considered as masterpieces of Islamic art. Pottery artists were trying to revive culture, using Pre -Islamic era motifs. The motifs were taken from manuscripts of Baghdad and Saljuq schools, paintings of epic stories in Shahnameh and romances in Khamse Nezami. These considerable influences were ignored by researchers. This made the researcher to investigate Baghdad and Seljuqi schools motifs in works including Varagha and Golshah, Kalileh-and-Dimna and Hariri Maghamat to recognize their influences on Minai wares' motifs. The purpose of this study was to explore the impacts of these two miniature schools and Persian literature on Minai wares and compare their influences. The methods applied in this study were historical-comparative, library and museum resources. The illustrated manuscripts from Baghdad and Saljuqi were segregated, similarities and differences were identified and finally their influences were mentioned.
Keywords: Influence,  miniature  Baghdad school,  Seljuk school,  Minai wares.

Статья посвящена результатам исследования керамики Хульбука (столицы Хутталя) IX-XI вв. ‎‎(юго-¬запад Таджикистана), обобщенным в диссертационной работе автора 2008г. ‎Изученный материал получен в итоге археологических исследований 1953-1978гг. ‎в цитадели, выгребных ямах (бадрабах) и гончарных печах в “нижнем городе” (шахристане). ‎Исследование базируется на сравнении с материалами из других средневековых городов ‎Центральной Азии (Узбекистан, юг Казахстана, Таджикистан, Кыргызстан), известными по ‎многочисленной русскоязычной литературе советского времени. Рассмотрены классификация ‎типов керамики и их хронология. В результате разработана “открытая” типология, основанная ‎не на одном лишь декоре глазурованной посуды, как это обычно практиковалось при ‎изучении исламской керамики. Все 20 типов неглазурованной керамики и 14 типов ‎глазурованной посуды выделены с учетом их технических характеристик (рассмотрены ‎аспекты, касающиеся месторождения глины, гончарных печей и техники производства), ‎хронологии и распространения. Выявлено, что в Хульбуке соединились традиции ‎керамического производства Мавераннахра и Хорасана, представлены местные ‎и региональные типы керамики в сочетании с импортами из Китая (селадоны из Юэ-яо) ‎и Ирака (люстр из Басры). Сравнительный анализ среднеазиатской керамики с материалами ‎Ближнего и Среднего Востока, которые, как правило, не изучались совместно, позволяет ‎лучше понять отношения между разными исламскими регионами эпохи.‎

Ключевые слова:‎
• Средняя Азия
• исламская керамика
• средневековый Хутталь
• Саманиды
• Central Asia
• Islamic pottery
• medieval Huttal
• Samanids

T he article presents one group of Islamic vases in the Col- lection of the Byzantine and Christian Museum, which are dated to the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The most impressive piece is the bowl inv. no. BXM 23450 (Figs 1 and 2), which was formerly in the possession of the Armenian collector Dikran Kelekian. Decorating the bottom of the bowl, on a coat of white slip, are rotating fish painted in white as if in relief. The bowl belongs to a category of ce- ramics of Sultanaban type, a name linked with the homony- mous city in Persia. Modern research attributes Sultanabad ware to workshops in Kashan, during the period of domina- tion of the Mongol Ilhanid rulers, who in the mid-thirteenth century conquered territories in Iran, Asia Minor and Iraq. The Iranian vases were traded in the markets of Egypt and Syria during the period of domination by Mamluk officials and had a considerable influence on local ceramic produc- tion, mainly of the first half of the fourteenth century, which was in vogue. The diffusion of the style of Iranian ceramics is exemplified by three sherds donated by Antonis Benakis to the Byzantine and Christian Museum, and which are possi- bly products of Egyptian workshops. They belong to the technique of painted pottery with deep blue and black deco- ration under a transparent glaze, in the Panel Style (with ra- diate panels on the bottom), and are dated in the fourteenth century (Figs 3 and 4).
In the period of the military oligarchy of Mamluk officials
(1250-1517), large quantities of ceramics with incised or sgraffito decoration, alluding to creations in metalwork, were produced in Egypt. Fragments of sgraffito vases have been found in abundance in excavations at Fustat, which are represented in the Byzantine Museum and are dated to the fourteenth century. Predominant in the decoration of Mam- luk sgraffito vases are inscriptions (Figs 6, 8, 9 and 10), fre- quently combined with emblems-coats of arms (Fig. 10), while pictorial decoration is rather restricted. It should be noted that in the insignia of high-rank and low-rank officials, as also in the inscriptions with honorary titles, the strict or- ganization of the Mamluk State and the court’s insistence on social order and hierarchy are expressed. In the fifteenth- century Egyptian workshops, production of sgraffito vases gradually waned and was finally abandoned, whereas, on the contrary, the production of ceramics with under-glaze deep blue or black painted designs continued, examples of which are preserved in the Museum (Figs 15 and 16). Vases with the signatures of the Egyptian potters Gazal (Figs 16-18) and possibly the well-known Gaibi are included in the Museum’s collection (Figs 19 and 20). Obvious in this group is the influence of Chinese porcelain painted in cobalt blue, of the Yuan (1279-1368) and Ming (1368-1644) dynasties, which was imported to the Islamic world. Ceramics of this type en- joyed wide dissemination throughout the Mediterranean Basin.