Philosophical Criticism of Religion

Mirza Fath Ali Akhundzadeh is considered one of the most important and influential personalities in the religious-social life of contemporary Iran. He began his cultural activities writing dramas and criticizing the religious-social situation of the society he lived in. He said that this resembled Protestantism. In addition to this, he also dealt theoretically with the criticism of religion and issues related to it. This article is an attempt to survey the basic features of his intellectual system and his main objections to religion-in particular the religion of Islam-as they are reflected in his major works. Hence, a comprehensive view of his life as well the events that influenced his ideas have been presented herein.

In this article, I deconstruct the concept of legitimacy (notably in the form elaborated by Max Weber) by emphasising its conceptual complicity with the notion of sovereignty. Through an analysis of Derrida's critique of Austin's theory of performativity, I elaborate another, non-ontological 'concept' of legitimacy, located before and beyond sociological methodology, International Relations theory, and performative ontologies of power. This legitimation-to-come signifies the structural fallibility and pervertibility of the performative, and instantiates the archi-originary force of an unconditional resistance, conditioning both the position and the deconstruction of ontologies of sovereign ipseity (ipsocracy). Pursuing the efforts of Cynthia Weber and Rob Walker, I attempt to sketch the implications of this post-performative legitimacy with respect to the protocols of legitimation of International Relations theory and sociological methodologies, through an analysis of their persistent ontological presuppositions.

Artur Schopenhauer bardzo słusznie określany jest mianem propagatora szeroko rozumianej filozofii Wschodu a także filozofem zajmującym się problematyką religii. W swych dziełach poruszał zarówno tematy chrześcijaństwa, buddyzmu i hinduizmu, a nawet islamu. Zaczytywał się w pismach mistyków, świętych tekstach czy też pismach czołowych postaci religii. Czy jednak jego stosunek i ocena religii muzułmańskiej oparta była na gruntownej znajomości tej religii, czy raczej na dość powszechnych w XIX wieku stereotypach jej dotyczących? Artykuł przedstawia odpowiedź na to pytanie przybliżając czytelnikowi postrzeganie islamu przez Artura Schopenhauera oraz analizując uwarunkowania, które ukształtowały jego podejście do religii muzułmańskiej.

The purpose of this article is first to examine W. E. B. Du Bois’ psychosocial theory of race, which is commonly known as “double-consciousness.” This is done to highlight how African Americans are able to navigate through life when one’s moral agency is truly constrained by internal and external forces. Second, drawing from Du Bois’ theoretical construct of race, connections are made to the lived experiences of Christian women in the anthropological, ethnographic study of Marla F. Frederick. The relevance and limitations of Du Bois’ theoretical paradigm as it pertains to the contemporary Christian women are examined, and attention is given to how the multiple selves of the Christian women are negotiated in public and private spheres.

Die europäische Aufklärung des 18. Jahrhunderts gehört zu den bedeutendsten
kulturellen und gesellschaftspolitischen Strömungen der westlichen Zivilisation.
Sie stellt Weichen für die Herausbildung des modernen Menschen- und Weltbildes. Die in ihr vertretenen Werte sind grundlegend für die Entstehung von freiheitlichen und demokratischen Staatsgebilden. Es sind universelle Werte wie Menschenwürde, Freiheit, Selbstbestimmung (Autonomie) und Unabhängigkeit.
Die menschliche Vernunft und nicht eine göttliche Instanz gilt für die Aufklärung
als das Richtmaß des Denkens und Handelns. Erwachsen aus der Aufklärung sind
die moderne Wissenschaft, der Individualismus, die moderne Religionskritik sowie
die universellen Menschenrechte wie die Meinungsfreiheit.
Doch die Werte der Aufklärung werden in der Gegenwart zunehmend verletzt und
ihre Errungenschaften rückgängig gemacht. Zwei „Kräfte“ tun sich im Kampf gegen die Aufklärung besonders hervor: einerseits die von der philosophischen Postmoderne beeinflussten neuen Ideologien wie Politische Korrektheit, Gender und Diversity, andererseits der politische Islam, der in der westlichen Welt verstärkt an Bedeutung gewinnt. Beide verursachen krisenhafte Phänomene wie Einschränkungen von Rechten, Ungleichheiten, Ungerechtigkeiten und Konflikte.
Der Autor ruft die wichtigsten Werte der Aufklärung in Erinnerung und zeigt, wie
sie in der heutigen Gesellschaft und Politik verletzt werden. Eine Rückbesinnung
auf diese Werte und ihre Verteidigung helfen uns, einen Ausweg aus der gegenwärtigen Krise zu finden.
Der Autor macht die Aktualität der Aufklärung sichtbar. Sie kann uns immer noch eine kulturelle und gesellschaftspolitische Orientierung geben.

Tanri tasavvuru ile ilgili olarak din felsefesinde yapilan bir ayirim filozoflarin tanrisi ve dinin Tanrisi seklindedir. Bununla iliskili baska bir ayirim da akil dini ve vahiy dini yahut da vahye dayanan din seklindedir. Tanri’nin ne olduguna ve dogru dini ogretilerin tamamen akilla bilinebilecegine, akli bilginin disinda ve otesinde vahye dayanan ogretilerin bir yeri olmadigina inanmak deist bir anlayisi temsil etmektedir. Bu makalede ben, Gazâli’nin bazi goruslerini dikkate alarak kufurle sucladigi ortacagdaki Musluman filozoflardan Ibn Sinâ’nin Tanri ve dini ogretiler hakkindaki mevzisinin deist bir yaklasim sayilip sayilamayacagini ele alacagim. Ibn Sinâ’nin deist sayilip sayilamayacagi sorusuna cevap vermek icin, onun vahiy ve dini ogretilerin hususiyeti hakkinda goruslerini ifade ettikten sonra, onun goruslerini kelam ulemasinin bu meseleye bakisi ile iliskilendirecegim. Ibn Sinâ’nin meseleye bakisinda kelamcilarin bakisindan onemli bir farklilik olsa da, onun mevzisinin deiz...

The aim of the present article is to discuss relations between archaic Greek philosophy and poetry through the example of Xenophanes of Colophon (sixth century BCE), the poet best known for a critique of traditional religion using anthropomorphic imagery. The initial problem lies in understanding the performative aspect in Xenophanes’ elegiac poems; analysis of fragments 1W and 2W has revealed that his literary output can be situated within the framework of the aristocratic symposium. This sympotic context determines the second question: how the poetic fragments fi t with those compositions in which Xenophanes attacks traditional beliefs and poetic ideas of Homer and Hesiod. As I suggest, the critique of traditional mythical narratives, and undermining other poets’ authority, can be interpreted as an expression of performative practices functioning at symposia of the archaic and classical epochs. By removing the division between “philosophy” and “poetry”, different aspects of Xenophanes’ fragments begin to coincide with the phenomenon of the ancient symposium, understood as a space for intellectual competition.

If the Qur'an is the word of God, it must give accurate information about the world and the universe. The Qur'an certainly does not meet this criterion. When we look at the Qur'an, we see that wrong information is constantly given about the world and the universe. The Qur'an's description of the world, the solar system and the universe is primitive and absurd when compared with today's knowledge. Therefore, this issue is one of the most important proofs that the Qur'an does not come from God.

Ficaremos no período alemão de Tillich (1919-1933), considerando três
obras de juventude: “A superação do conceito de religião na filosofia da
religião” (1922), “O sistema das ciências segundo objetivos e métodos”
(1923) e a “Filosofia da religião” (1925). A primeira apresenta três
métodos para a filosofia da religião: crítico, intuitivo e crítico-intuitivo
ou paradoxal. A segunda traz também três métodos, já chegando à formulação
definitiva: crítico, fenomenológico e metalógico. A terceira,
enfim, trabalha com quatro métodos: dialético-crítico, fenomenológico,
pragmático e metalógico ou crítico-intuitivo. Nos dois casos, o método
metalógico é considerado o mais adequado ao seu objeto, a religião,
superando, mas incorporando, de certo modo, os outros. Trata-se de
apreender o conteúdo de sentido (Sinngehalt) através das formas da
significação (Sinnformen). O método metalógico é a base da teologia da
cultura, que Tillich desenvolve de modo não sistemático nos anos 20 e
30 do século XX.
This is Tillich’s German period (1919-1933), in which we will consider
three early works: “The Conquest of the Concept of Religion in the Philosophy
of Religion” (1922), “The System of the Sciences” (1923) and “The
Philosophy of Religion” (1925). The first work presents three methods
for the philosophy of religion: critical, intuitive and critical-intuitive or
paradoxical. The second also brings three methods, approaching the definitive
formulation: critical, phenomenological and metalogical. The third,
finally, works with four methods: dialectical-critical, phenomenological,
pragmatic and metalogical or critical-intuitive. In both cases, the metalogical
method is considered the most appropriate method to its object, the
religion, overcoming, but incorporating, in a way, the other methods. It
is the question to grasp the content of meaning (Sinngehalt) through the
forms of meaning (Sinnformen). The metalogical method is the basis of
the theology of culture, which Tillich develops in a non-systematic way
in the 20s and 30s of the twentieth century.

Sharp criticisms of polytheistic idolatry, which can be found in the Bible, are read in the context of its monotheistic faith. Nevertheless these texts, if taken out of their present context and approached form-critically, seem to reflect a polemical attitude to religion in general. They are satiric and attack weak points of the religions. They can be compared to Greek texts as the tradition on Diagoras, some Aesopic fables, Lucian’s story on the false serpent god (Alexander the false prophet) etc. Dan 14 can be also a reaction to the Asclepios cult. These satires could even be borrowed (with modifications) from Greek sources. Making use of such sources, biblical authors probably disregarded their antireligious stance, considering biblical faith as something else than ‘religion’ in the ancient sense of this term.

In this paper, presented at the Netherlands-Israel Spinoza Seminar in Haifa in 2018, I argue that Spinoza's philosophy can help solve 'the problem of context' regarding the interpretation of Spinoza's Tractatus Theologico-Politicus (TTP). 1 First, I discuss how Spinoza's epistemology explains why we interpret texts differently. Secondly I explain why Spinoza would have criticized teleological readings. Thirdly I sketch what to my view is at stake in the debate between contextualists and Straussians. Fourthly I examine Spinoza's hermeneutics and compare it to that of the Cambridge School. Finally I argue that Spinoza's metaphysics helps us bridge the gap between Cambridge contextualists and Straussian textualists.

The word "postmodernism" has had an interesting history over the past fifty years. Originally, the term described a style of architecture. The word postmodern has since spread to all aspects of culture. Moreover, it has become a key term in the culture wars, especially with regard to certain strands of religious faith.

Postmodernism in these contexts is viewed as the enemy of rationality, revealed religion, and even truth itself. But not all persons of faith agree with this assessment of postmodernism. Our guest, Aaron Simmons, sees postmodernism as one way for religions to recapture a lost humility in the public sphere. For Simmons, postmodernity has less to do with denying truth than it does with saying that truth has certain characteristics that make objectivity and absolute certainty difficult.

Aaron Simmons is assistant professor of philosophy at Furman University in South Carolina. He is the author of God and the Other: Ethics and Politics after the Theological Turn, and he is the editor of several other books dealing with philosophy and religion.