Seasonal Variations

Purpose
This article explores the effects generated by the Milan World Expo 2015 on both firm performance and seasonality structure. It aims to answer the following research question: Did the Milan Expo 2015 influence only hotel results without changing seasonal patterns, or was this mega event able to reconfigure seasonal periods?

Methodology
The present analysis is based on Smith Travel Research (STR) data. This source offers daily data on a large sample of Milan hotels (approximately 80 percent of the total), representing more than 30,000 rooms. The empirical data relates to a period of 12 years, 11 of which are focused on the pre-event period (2004–2014), while 2015 is centered on the Milan Expo. This data comprises 4,383 daily observations. For each day, three operating measures were analyzed: occupancy, average daily rate (ADR), and revenue per available room (RevPAR).

Findings
The empirical findings fully support the first hypothesis: the four seasonal periods built around the main market segments are relevant lenses for understanding Milan’s demand structure before Expo 2015. The findings also support the second hypothesis relating to the effects generated by the event: Expo 2015 was able to improve hotel performance during the four seasonal periods analyzed. The most fragile seasonality registered the highest rise. Finally, the last two hypotheses to be investigated are as follows: did the Milan Expo 2015 simply improve hotel performance, without changing the underlying seasonal patterns (hypothesis 3), or did this event reconfigure the demand structure (hypothesis 4)? The analyses carried out lend more support to the fourth hypothesis, suggesting that new seasonal patterns emerged during Expo 2015.

Originality
This paper explores the impact of a mega event on seasonal patterns of hotel performance metrics. At least three original aspects are introduced. Firstly, to analyze the Milan demand variation, a market segment approach that proposes an innovative seasonal matrix is developed. This is based on the three main client groups attracted by the destination. Secondly, the effects generated by the Expo are measured with consideration given to the four seasonal periods. Thirdly, based on graphical and statistical analysis, the paper confirms that new seasonal patterns emerged during the Expo.

In Plutarch's book On the Apparent Face in the Orb of the Moon, the interlocutors develop a dialogue about a trip to the ''great continent'' beyond the North Atlantic Ocean. By applying modern scientific data, the present reappraisal of the astronomical and geographical elements within this dialogue has produced a novel interpretation of the date and place of the meeting and a journey to the northern Atlantic Ocean. A described solar eclipse is dated to AD 75, making use of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)/Espenak/Meeus list, as well as historical information. The described peculiar, recurrent trips take place every 30 years (when the planet Saturn reaches the Taurus constellation) from the Mediterranean Sea to the Cronian Open Sea, which is identified with northern Atlantic Ocean coasts. It has been suggested that the last mission had returned homeland in April AD 56. The information provided concerns, distances between coastal sites and islands, duration of sea paths in days, and the reported setting and size between the destination place and its gulf with regards to Azov (in Crimea) and the Caspian Sea. Implications of sea currents and the coastal geomorphology of those lands are given. Following strictly the Gulf Stream current, as well as other known sea currents in the northern Atlantic Ocean, and introducing estimated speed for the ship, the geographical location of destination of the Greek settlers is proposedly identified with St. Lawrence Gulf and Newfoundland island. Other unnamed islands mentioned in this dialogue are identified with Norway's islands, Azores, Iceland, Greenland, and Baffin islands. It has been shown that the journey is made with good knowledge of sea currents but by using bright stars and stellar configurations as astronomical nightscape markers that determine the exact orientation of the sailing toward the Iberian Peninsula and back to the eastern Mediterranean, making the current working hypothesis a plausible event.

There is great diversity in rainfed farming systems with climate and soil type dictating, to a large degree, their primary structure. Profitable crop production requires efficient collection of water and then its effective extraction by the crop with minimal losses to evaporation, runoff, drainage and weed competition. The supply of water for rainfed crop production is primarily controlled by the seasonal pattern (summer or winter dominance), by intensity of precipitation and its interaction with the absorptive capacity of the soil. The relationship between water use and crop yield is close and positive and forms the basis of crop water production functions. In relation to the structure, operation and management of rainfed farming systems, we focus on optimisation of four primary components: (1) the delivery of water; (2) the capture of rainfall; (3) the portion of water available for crop production; and (4) the efficiency of conversion of water to a usable product, and how these can be used. Optimising the availability of water and its use is complex but subject to straightforward analyses. Management is aimed at maximising water supply and its efficiency of use. The ways that water availability is managed are diverse but strongly interconnected, and reflect differing biophysical and economic conditions. Our examples, from both developed and developing countries show that there is a common strategy despite the diversity.