Silk Road Studies

V Encuentro de Jóvenes Investigadores de la Fundación Española de Historia Moderna Sevilla 2019
A partir de que los virreinatos americanos iniciaron el comercio con Asia a través de las Filipinas, poco tardaron en aflorar recelos. La Corona sufrió la fuga de plata hacia el continente asiático y los mercaderes de Sevilla vislumbraron la ruina de sus mercados vitales. A partir de entonces inició una política mercantil que buscó limitar al máximo aquel comercio de manera que sólo existiera como una manera de garantizar el sustento del archipiélago filipino. No obstante, los productos asiáticos eran tan codiciados y generaban tan grandes ganancias que de poco sirvieron las cédulas reales, generando innumerables conflictos dignos de estudio. En este trabajo se propone un estudio de caso sobre un decomiso específico de mercaderías de la China efectuado por el virrey príncipe de Esquilache en 1615. Mediante él, sacar a la luz una parte de la realidad comercial de la Monarquía Hispánica en la Edad Moderna: estrategias de contrabando, investigaciones, pesquisas y sentencias; corrupción y cohecho de funcionarios de la Corona, así como conflictos de poder entre estos y rivalidades entre diversas instituciones. También determinar en qué grado tenía efecto la legislación sobre la realidad.
Since the American viceroyalties began trade with Asia through the Philippines, misgivings soon arose. The Crown suffered the flow of silver to the Asian continent and the merchants of Seville glimpsed the ruin of their vital markets. From then on, started a mercantile policy that sought to limit trade to the máximum, so that it only existed as a way to guarantee the sustenance of the Philippine archipelago. However, Asian products were so coveted and generated such great profits that the royal orders were of little use, generating numerous conflicts that are worthy of studying. This paper aims to study a specific seizure of chinese merchandise carried out by the viceroy prince of Esquilache in 1615 in order to unveil a part of the commercial reality of the Hispanic Monarchy in the Early Modern Age: contraband strategies, investigations, inquiries and sentences; corruption and bribery of king’s officials, as well as conflicts of power between them and rivalries between various institutions. Also determine to what extent the legislation had an effect on reality.

Il volume, ampiamente illustrato, è un viaggio affascinante per "Le antiche Vie della Cina", alla scoperta dei lunghi percorsi che hanno cambiato le sorti del mondo.
Dalla più conosciuta Via della Seta, alle Vie della Giada, del Bronzo, della Lacca, della Porcellana, per concludere con la Via del Tè: un’indagine archeologico-artistica, estesa nello spazio e nel tempo, sull'interazione di popoli e culture differenti, il cui incontro/scontro ha rivoluzionato il divenire storico e reso il dialogo interculturale la vera “merce” di scambio.
“Il commercio – come si scopre leggendo il libro - è solamente un aspetto della storia perché i movimenti delle religioni, il contatto tra i popoli e la trasmissione di idee e tecnologie sono divenute la chiave di volta per la comprensione del progresso delle culture e delle civiltà coinvolte in questa arena.”

There are many unanswered questions about the evolution of the ancient ‘Silk Roads’ across Asia. This is especially the case in their mountainous stretches, where harsh terrain is seen as an impediment to travel. Considering the ecology and mobility of inner Asian mountain pastoralists, we use ‘flow accumulation’ modelling to calculate the annual routes of nomadic societies (from 750 m to 4,000 m elevation). Aggregating 500 iterations of the model reveals a high-resolution flow network that simulates how centuries of seasonal nomadic herding could shape discrete routes of connectivity across the mountains of Asia. We then compare the locations of known high-elevation Silk Road sites with the geography of these optimized herding flows, and find a significant correspondence in mountainous regions. Thus, we argue that highland Silk Road networks (from 750 m to 4,000 m) emerged slowly in relation to long-established mobility patterns of nomadic herders in the mountains of inner Asia.

Die Wirtschaft der antiken Welt steht zunehmend im Mittelpunkt des Interesses der althistorischen Forschung. Obwohl seit Jahrzehnten vor allem um die quantitative wie qualitative Beurteilung des Handels in der Antike erbittert gerungen wird, wird in der Forschungsliteratur häufig nicht scharf zwischen Handel und Distribution differenziert. Um die Auswertung des antiken Quellenmaterials aus dem Mittelmeerraum mit dem aus dem Vorderen Orient zu verbinden, fand im April 2013 in Marburg eine interdisziplinäre Tagung statt, die sich der Thematik am Beispiel des Handels und der Distribution von Textilien vom 2. Jahrtausend v.Chr. bis ins frühe 2. Jahrtausend n.Chr. widmete.
Textilien eignen sich in besonderer Weise dazu, Einblicke in die Funktionsweise des antiken Warenaustauschs zu erhalten. Zwar gibt es bereits in vielen Disziplinen Forschungen zu Handel und Distribution von Textilien, aber diese werden häufig über die jeweiligen Fächergrenzen hinaus nicht wahrgenommen. Der zur Tagung gehörige Sammelband vereint daher Analysen internationaler Expertinnen und Experten aus unterschiedlichen Fachdisziplinen: Alte Geschichte, Altorientalistik, Archäologie, Textilforschung und Naturwissenschaften bilden den analytisch-methodischen Rahmen. Gerade der neuere Ansatz, dokumentarische Quellen mit archäologischen Funden und naturwissenschaftlichen Analysemethoden zu verknüpfen, erlaubt einen tief greifenden Einblick in die Funktionsweise antiker Warendistribution, der Auskunft über das „Wer?“, das „Wie?“ und das „Warum?“ gleichermaßen gibt. Überlegungen zu Absatz- und Beschaffungsmärkten, Warenpreisen und involvierten Akteuren (Institutionen) geben zudem entscheidende Informationen über den Warenaustausch im engeren Sinne hinaus.

Three women dominated the politics and government of the Mongol Empire in the decade of the 1240s. Töregene and Oghul-Qaimish ruled as regents and are credited with corruption and petty politics throughout their regencies, while Sorqoqtani Beki became a paragon of virtue throughout the world for her adherence to the yasa of Chinggis Khan. Curiously, very little attention has been paid to this period to verify the accuracy of the statements. This study examines the role of all three women, but also attempts to place their actions in context, examine their role in commerce and how that affected their activities and their legacies. It argues that while the overall depiction of Töregene and Oghul-Qaimish may not be inaccurate, it overlooks some crucial elements and motives in their actions which also reveal that Sorqoqtani's actions were not as virtuous as the sources state.

Çin coğrafyasından başlayarak Avrupa'ya kadar giden ve tarih boyunca ticari, siyasi, ve kültürel alışverişin bir güzergahı olan İpek Yolu ve etki alanındaki coğrafya, özellikle Sovyet Sosyalist Cumhuriyetleri Birliği'nin (SSCB) yıkılışı, Türk Cumhuriyetleri'nin bağımsızlıklarını kazanmasıyla yeniden önem kazanmaya başlamıştır. Bu coğrafya potansiyelleri ve stratejik konumu sebebiyle bütün dünyanın ilgisini çekmektedir. Büyük bir kısmı Müslüman milletlerin yaşadığı ülkelerden oluşan İpek Yolu coğrafyasında ve etki alanında İslam dinini meşruiyet unsuru olarak kullanan pek çok radikal yapılanma da zaman zaman ortaya çıkmaktadır. Özellikle El Kaide ile Irak ve Şam İslam Devleti (IŞİD) terör örgütlerinin dünya gündemine gelmesiyle tartışılmaya başlanan Radikal Selefilik de bu bölgeyi etkisi altına almaktadır. SSCB'ye karşı ABD'nin desteklediği İslamcı militanlar, Afganistan'ı bir organizasyon merkezi olarak kullanmıştır. SSCB'nin çöküşü ardından dini bir canlanış yaşayan Türkistan coğrafyası için ise hem Afganistan etkisi hem de dini arayış, milli kimlik oluşumundaki İslam unsuru sebebiyle Selefilik her geçen gün çeşitli etki alanları oluşturmaktadır. İpek Yolu'nun önemli duraklarından olan Anadolu coğrafyası ve Ortadoğu ise IŞİD tehdidi sebebiyle büyük sorunlar yaşamaktadır. Yükselen İpek Yolu coğrafyasında hem terör üretmesi hem de ideolojik ve dini olarak bir kültür değişmesi yaratma ihtimali sebebiyle Radikal Selefilik ve bağlantılı terör ciddi bir tehdit unsuru haline gelmiştir. Bu çalışmada Selefilik'in tarihi, ideolojik ve dini kökenleri değerlendirilecek, İpek Yolu coğrafyasında yarattığı ve yaratabileceği tehditler incelenecektir. Anahtar Kelimeler: İpek Yolu, Türk Dünyası, Ortadoğu, Radikal Selefilik, Terör A. GİRİŞ Uluslararası siyasette ve krizlerde pek çok faktör rol oynamaktadır. Bu faktörlerden biri de din ve mezhep faktörüdür. İnsanlık tarihine bakıldığında din faktörünün pek çok savaşa, krize, barışa, anlaşmaya ve çatışmaya konu olduğunu görmekteyiz. Avrupa'daki mezhep savaşları, Haçlı Seferleri, Osmanlı ve Selçuklu Türklerinin " İlay-ı Kelimetullah " yani İslamiyet'i yaymak amacıyla sürekli Batı'ya doğru cihat etmesi, ABD'nin " Yeşil Kuşak " projesi, İsrail devletinin kuruluşu, pek çok iç savaş ve özellikle 2001 yılındaki 11 Eylül saldırılarıyla adından daha çok söz ettirmeye başlayan terör bariz bir biçimde din kavramının uluslararası siyaset içinde yer aldığını göstermektedir. 1 Bu örneklerden de yola çıkarak dini meşruiyet kaynağı yapan siyasi hamlelerin ve uluslararası organizasyonların her geçen gün daha çok gündemimizde yer aldığını görmekteyiz. Özellikle Arap Baharı sonrasında Ortadoğu coğrafyasında yaşananlar, " Irak ve Şam İslam Devleti " (IŞİD), El-Nusra gibi terör örgütlerinin yarattığı kaos ve öncesinde El-Kaide'nin dünya gündemindeki yeri dinin uluslararası siyasetteki yeri noktasında çok farklı bir boyut ortaya çıkarmıştır. Bu gibi terör örgütleri yaptıkları eylemleri " Tanrı " adına yapılan işler olarak göstermekte ve dini literatürden kendilerine meşruiyet kaynağı üretmektedirler. 2 Özellikle İslam Dünyası'nda dini terörü meşrulaştırma aracı olarak kullanan örgütler incelendiğinde karşımıza itikadi bir akımdan yola çıkarak radikalleşen ve bir şiddet ideolojisine dönüşen " Selefilik " çıkmaktadır. Kendisini Selefi olarak tanımlayan ya da söylem ve eylemleriyle bu şekilde tanımlanan örgütlerin faaliyet alanları incelendiğinde ise tarihi İpek Yolu coğrafyası ve etki alanının bu yapılara ev sahipliği yaptığı görülmektedir. Bu durum ise ekonomik, sosyal ve siyasi olarak yükselen ve önem kazanan İpek Yolu coğrafyası için ciddi bir tehdit oluşturmaktadır.

The often overlooked people-to-people element of the Belt and Road is embracing sports, with all the cultural complexities that brings.One of the pillars of China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) that remains continually overlooked is people-to-people ties. P2P, to use the shorthand, is about building social, cultural, and digital entanglements. Social scientists have long understood the power of networks and the political realities they can produce. The BRI aims to build networks across multiple sectors, far beyond trade and infrastructure. Here then the Silk Road plays a key role: a narrative of history as connectivity and civilizational dialogue invented in the late 19th century, which today has become a platform for creatively building networks and connections between cities, regions, and institutions.

In September 2014, upon Mongolia’s initiative, heads of state of Mongolia, China and Russia met during the SCO Summit in Dushanbe, Tajikistan and agreed to work together on transnational infrastructure development. The three parties agreed in principle to build a ‘Steppe Road’ in Mongolia, reviving a pre-modern transport network that facilitated trade between China and Russia. ‘Steppe Road’ thus represents a breakthrough in Mongolia’s longstanding self-perception of tragic geography, stepping out into the centre of the emergent world traffic.

This international symposium will bring together Mongolian and international scholars and policy-makers to assess the development of Steppe Road in relation to the Chinese initiative of Silk Road Economic Belt, and Russia’s Eurasian Transport Network. We aim to reconceptualise Mongolia’s geopoliticality as a ‘transit nation’ between China and Russia, and promote Mongolia’s zam sudlal (‘roadology’) to make zam (‘road’) into both an object of study and a prism to view Mongolia in terms of Mongolia’s ‘connectivity’ to its neighbours and the world beyond. This is going to be the third (and last) conference of ‘Entangled Lines: Railways, Resource Booms, and Transnational Politics in Mongolia’ — a British Academy funded international network and mobility project between the Mongolia and Inner Asia Studies Unit (Cambridge University), and Institute of International Affairs (Mongolian Academy of Sciences).

«Полуварварское» царство Северная Чжоу (557–581 гг.) было расположено между районами, контролируемыми куда более «китайским» государством Северная Ци (550–577 гг.) и кочевниками (в т. ч. Тюркским каганатом). Общность сяньби сыграла важную роль в формировании культуры Северной Чжоу, что, в свою очередь, наложило свой отпечаток и на периоды Суй и Тан. Правящее семейство в царстве (Юйвэнь) происходило из племён тоба, восходящих к сяньби. Естественно, что и подданные-ханьцы были несколько «синьбизированы». Именно на стыке трёх совершенно различных по форме и содержанию культур зародился «центр силы», который затем объединит Китай. Впрочем, в истории Поднебесной носителями центростремительных тенденций зачастую выступали северо-западные «полуварварские» правители. Так было и во времена Восточной Чжоу, когда западное царство Цинь объединило Срединную империю, это же повторилось и после раннесредневекового распада эпохи Наньбэйчао.

Videoconferenza disponibile su YouTube al link allegato. Si propone un itinerario tra le sete ispirate alla vita romanzata del re persiano Bahràm V (421-439 d.C.). Grazie a questi preziosi manufatti, l'eco di un racconto orientale si è diffusa nel cuore dell'Europa nell'età di Carlo Magno.

INCLUSION OF REFUGEES INTO LABOUR MARKET: TOURISM AS A REMEDY FOR
INSTABILITY
Muharrem TUNA
Gazi University, Turkey
Email: muharrem@gazi.edu.tr
Melih AYDIN
Kilis 7 Aralık University, Turkey
Email: maydin@kilis.edu.tr
The Silk Road, in the beginning linked the circulation of goods between the east and the west of the world, and was later gained fame as cultural exchange and played an important role (www.topchinatravel.com). Central Asia is a bridge between East Asia and Europe where the Ancient Silk Road is located. It mainly hosts the Turkish-speaking and nomadic population, including Turkey (Koh & Kwok, 2017). Silk Road has a potential to boost its central position to exploit trade and investment potentials with South Asia, East Asia, West Asia and Europe (UNCTAD, 2009). Having an international expansion, Silk Route needs detailed reviews and discussions to revitalize the tourism and travel market. (Manhas, Kour & Bhagata, 2014). Designing of a global society implies that tourism businesses have the ability to operate globally and many have a competitive strategy of internationalization (Peric, 2005). Tourism as a driving power for safety is reflected in the UNWTO Global Code of Ethics, a number of principles for the development of sustainable and responsible tourism, approved in 1999 by the UNWTO General Assembly and notified by the UN General Assembly in 2001 (www.unwto.org). An important challenge for all local constitutions working with employers to support integration is the issue of discrimination. At this point, tourism should be considered as an equality and economic empowerment tool (OECD, 2006). Sharing costs among nations would make it less expensive to develop a professional framework and collaborative efforts would have these nations manage unemployment and underemployment issues. (Visconti & Gal, 2018). Turkey, alone hosts more than 3 million refugees. The incidence of entrepreneurship and job creation among immigrants is often high, as the local
5
employment opportunities in the periphery tend to be limited, suggesting that they will stimulate new economic development in the surrounding communities (Najib, 2016; Kalantaridis and Bika, 2011). In every sector, immigrants take part in the most risky positions and are usually compensated at lower rates than local workers (Kalavita, 2007). More than 4.8 million registered Syrian refugees lives in Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, and Egypt (Visconti & Gal, 2018). Despite the fact that there are many studies in the literature about silk road tourism, this study can shed light on the further studies, since there is a research gap on integration of refugees, living in silk road routes into the social life, and business life. This study will focus on the integration of the refugees into the social life and business life in the countries on the route of the silk road, by favour of the tourism channel. The role of tourism in preventing instability and hiding the painful face of war in a sense, will also be emphasized.
Keywords: Silk Road, Refugees, Instability, Inclusion, Tourism

Co-authored with Ruth Young. Simultaneously published as ‘Zentralasien 500 v. Chr.-600 n. Chr.’ In Dumont Weltatlas der Kunst, heraus. John Onians. Köln: Verlag Dumont, 2004. Reprinted in The Art Atlas, ed. John Onians. London: Laurence King, 2008.

ABSTRACT: This documentary response sheet contains a series of sequential questions drawn from the video, KULTUR: First Merchants (shown in-class; also available online via https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BjHiRCFz0Oo [46.36 minutes]).  These sequential questions aim to maximize both student attention to various pertinent points made throughout the documentary and greater retention of the materials covered by the documentary.  In addition, the documentary has been vetted for overall content accuracy (albeit updated and/or corrected in-class), and selected to provide supplementary visual aids (e.g., images of regions, sites, finds, and other materials), additional specialist views (e.g., interviews), and other data to aid in student comprehension of the course lectures and readings from the textbooks. REVISED Oct. 2023: This documentary contains much useful information for the East Mediterranean (Ulu Burun shipwreck), Ancient Egypt and Near East, and other regions (China and Central America), but does make reference to the "Cocaine mummies." I have used this opportunity to caution students about such findings, adding a side note to the question sheet (Q.26+) and a full page discussion on such assessments and indicators of long-distance trade in antiquity, including some references, web links, and other documentaries dealing with ancient trade and shipping.

In vier Teilen - entsprechend vier Kulturkreisen (״Roads") - mit 10 Kapiteln / Beiträgen bietet die Publikation - abgesehen von Foreword, Preface und Introduction, Introduction, sowie von Conclusion und Appendix - mit insgesamt 72 Abbildungen, Karten, Darstellungen und Zeichnungen die Ergebnisse eines Symposiums der Universität Zürich und des Schweizerischen Bundesinstituts für Technologie Zürich aus 2004 und beschreibt räumliche Konzepte, d.h. Karten und kartographische Darstellungen, aus dem Bereich entlang der Seidenstraße. (Im Vorliegenden wird auf eine Zitierung der Titel der Beiträge zu Gunsten einer jeweils kurzen Inhaltsangabe verzichtet.)

Azan on the Moon is an in-depth anthropological study of people’s lives along the Pamir Highway in eastern Tajikistan. Constructed in the 1930s in rugged high altitude terrain, the road fundamentally altered the material and social fabric of this former Soviet outpost on the border with Afghanistan and China. The highway initially brought sentiments of disconnection and hardship, followed by Soviet modernization and development, and ultimately a sense of distinction from bordering countries and urban centers that continues to this day.
Based on extensive fieldwork and through an analysis of construction, mobility, technology, media, development, Islam, and the state, Till Mostowlansky shows how ideas of modernity are both challenged and reinforced in contemporary Tajikistan. In the wake of China’s rise in Central Asia, people along the Pamir Highway strive to reconcile a modern future with a modern past. Weaving together the road, a population, and a region, Azan on the Moon presents a rich ethnography of global connections.

Created in the 13th to 14th century, the aumônière or alms bag central to this thesis was preserved for centuries in the treasury of the Cathedral of Como, Italy, before being presented to the Abegg-Stiftung for conservation. The object had been stored folded in a silver chest since 1586, during which time, creases had formed throughout its surface. The linen lining that historically formed the shape of the aumônière also held the creases with great tenacity, contributing to the distortion of the object, endangerment of the fragile silk threads and obfuscation of the unique tapestry-woven figurative depictions. Due to the multifaceted nature of materials used in this object, including membrane metal threads, vibrantly dyed silks, starched linen cloth, an iron opening-ring and brass and/or bronze chain links attached to a pendant of the same material, an adaptive conservation strategy was devised. Research into the various components of the object, scientific analyses and surrogate tests aided in the formation of a conservation approach. To establish an appropriate treatment , various humidification procedures were considered, and various tests performed on a reconstruction of the object. A minimally invasive ultrasonic humidification treatment was tailored to meet the preservation requirements for silk, while mitigating risks of oxidation and corrosion of the membrane metal threads and iron ring. Finally, the damaged areas were overlaid with silk crepeline, and a support form was made to prevent future distortions of the aumônière's surface in case of fluctuations in relative humidity. This treatment allowed the object to be successfully relaxed and returned to its original shape, while ensuring its long-term preservation.

吐魯番隨葬衣物疏中五道大神與果願大德比丘解題

中文摘要        "版權所有 引用請註明出處"
        他界觀科層化現象，意即將他界的架構想像為與現世中國官僚制度相對映的信仰概念，普遍被學者視為是中國宗教裡的一個重要特徵。中國宗教中他界觀科層化現象，自漢代起，最早具體呈現在前漢與後漢墓葬如遣策、地券以及鎮墓文，其後為道教、佛教吸收，發展成在喪葬儀式中所使用的牒文等。本文研究在吐魯番所發現六、七世紀高昌時期現存最早佛教墓葬衣物疏形成的起源。雖然經過一千多年，六、七世紀高昌時期佛教衣物疏中，佛教法師與他界五道大神聯繫的文書形式內容，與現代台灣佛教喪葬使用的三寶司牒文相較，仍存在相當程度的類似性。雖然根據史料，在四、五世紀甚至更早以前佛教已盛行於吐魯番地區，不過在高昌時期以前，吐魯番地區的墓葬卻極少發現關於佛教的文物。以往學者如馬雍以為這可能是因為佛教只盛行於上層貴族之故。  根據衣物疏的內容與形式，韓森 (Valerie Hansen) 認為這些吐魯番佛教衣物疏，不僅是佛教僧侶介入信眾墓葬的證明，同時也顯示佛教也由中國傳入吐魯番。  這些學者解讀吐魯番地區墓葬的論點，基本上是建立在墓葬中顯示的宗教觀與死者生前的宗教信仰應該是一致的前提下。
        不過，在本文中，我質疑這個前提是否適用於所有佛教徒的墓葬。我認為在探討佛教徒的墓葬時，有必要先釐清兩個重要的議題 第一：佛教教理與中國墓葬傳統相容性的問題。特別是佛教在印度與中國發展早期，在面對不同的環境以及文化條件時，如何處裡死者遺體的態度與方式。第二：印度與中國佛教僧侶在喪葬儀式中的角色。包括佛教僧侶在喪葬儀式中的主要工作，以及僧侶與葬儀人員及死者家屬在葬儀中的互動。
          我的研究顯示，最初，佛教僧人在喪葬儀式的主要角色就是誦經迴向功德給死者。在處理死者遺體的議題上，早期印度佛教中，因應不同環境條件，有不同處理死者遺體的方法。印度並沒有類似中國式的土葬葬儀，而在印度象徵尊貴的火葬，要到唐宋時期才逐漸被中國人接受，不過，這種在印度，因應不同狀況，有不同方式處理死者遺體的彈性態度也出現在六朝時期的重要偽經，《灌頂經》中。關於喪葬議題，《灌頂經》提到：只要是在依附佛教信仰的前提下，中國式的喪葬儀式傳統可以被視為是正確的喪葬處理方式。以在五世紀北涼時期吐魯番墓葬中發現的北涼王沮渠蒙遜之妻彭氏為例，她極可能如其夫婿及家族，也信仰佛教，不過在其衣物疏及墓葬文物中，並未發現有與佛教相關者。但是，這並不意謂在她的喪葬儀式中一定沒有佛教僧人的參與。可能佛教僧人有為死者誦經迴向功德，只是這樣的角色不一定能具體顯現在中國式的墓葬中。
          其次，關於高昌時期佛教衣物疏，有兩個問題已經困擾學者多年。第一，許多衣物疏都是由署名果願的僧人來聯絡他界的五道大神，不過由於最早與最晚提到果願的衣物疏相隔近一世記，所以，有些學者們懷疑果願可能是某種神聖稱謂，而非真有其人。第二，衣物疏中經常有語意片斷不完整文句，其中部分死者，特別是女性姓名常有留白、不詳的情況。在分析這些高昌時期佛教衣物疏時，過去學者有兩個基本的態度: 第一，佛教衣物疏是佛教僧人終於介入中國式墓葬儀式的證明。第二，他們傾向選取較完整正確的樣本研究，並視其他語意不全的樣本是因書寫者中文能力不足之筆誤。
        然而，高昌時期衣物疏中，僧人的出現並不意謂他們取代原先衣物疏中葬儀專家的角色。因為衣物疏本身陪葬物的內容還是必須有葬儀人員介入，所以這些佛教衣物疏所隱含的葬儀互動架構，應該不僅僅是建立在佛教僧侶以及信眾雙方間的互動，這個架構應該還包括葬儀專家在內的三角配合關係。在我的研究裡，我認為我們不能將那些在高昌衣物疏中，常見的死者或僧人之身份留白、語句顛倒不完整或語意錯誤單純視為是書寫者的錯誤。事實上，這些錯誤顯示反而為我們理解葬儀的互動架構提供許多線索。因此，不同於以往學者，傾向只選取少數內容較完整的衣物疏或墓葬為對象，並試圖將之解釋為處理高昌佛教衣物疏的較正確做法，我選取四個分別出土兩個以上衣物疏的家庭墓葬，作交叉分析比較，並輔以其他有特殊情形的個別衣物疏。我發現，雖然整體來說，高昌佛教衣物疏的書寫者對當中與五道大神聯繫的文書內容有一定程度的共識，但是他們之間對於文書內容的宗教目的、意義、忌諱似乎存有幾種不同的詮釋，有些甚至有可能是出自於誤解。即使是有出土佛教衣物疏的墓葬，有些似乎不見得實際上有佛教僧人的介入，它們的存在，有可能只是被葬儀人員當作是流行的或是具有避邪功用的陪葬物。換句話說，在墓葬的三角架構裡，三者之間的互動模式是有多元的可能而非只是依照某個單一模式。而且，在這個三角架構裡，葬儀人員或專家往往扮演著解讀這些吐魯番佛教衣物疏的關鍵角色。

Today the Silk Road is rapidly becoming one of the key geocultural and geostrategic concepts of the 21st century. A narrative of connected histories, it now operates as a platform for international trade, heritage diplomacy, infrastructure development and geopolitical ambition. Identified by two principal routes - maritime and overland, the Silk Road stretches across the Indian Ocean and Eurasian landmass, regions that will be of paramount importance in an increasingly multi-polar world.
This presentation examines how these narratives of historical connectivity and the idea of a Maritime Silk Road came about. It poses the question: Does the Maritime Silk Road stretch back millennia or is it merely an invented history less than five decades old? And if it is invented, does that matter?

In June 2017, forty-five Muslim students— Dungans 东干族 from Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan — celebrated their graduation from a four-year course of study at Northwest Normal University in Lanzhou, Gansu province. All these activities facilitate the establishment of a new Silk Road community with a ‘shared destiny’.

From an archaeological and historical standpoint, the Silk Road is neither a road nor a sudden manifestation in contemporary politics. The history of the Silk Road is one of a people who have borne harsh conditions for nearly 5,000 years. A countless number of people in the western region are spread out hidden across the long history of East Asia. They are the real life of the Silk Road, not the temporary sojourners on it. The Silk Road is not the cultural heritage of any one country, but of many. Instead of using it as a symbolic acknowledgment for specific countries, we should see it as a nexus of exchange in world civilization.
This paper has looked at how the Silk Road, which was once valued as a hub for civilizational exchange, has ironically become a center of international conflict.

This project charts the development of a brand inspired by an ancient symbol of three rabbits with interlocking ears.
The process documented in this book details the evolution of the brand, charting its history and the deciphering of its language. The symbol is explored through a collection of artifacts in a variety of media: print, ceramics, glass, and metal. My practice develops a fictional archaeological history which evolves our brand identity.
The collection draws from diverse cultural traditions and will inspire our future projects in various fields of interest: organic streetwear, sustainable home décor, and holistic body care products.

In addition to producing limited editions of products and publications, and managing our home and forest garden, the creative team at Three Rabbits Farm also provides consulting services for natural building, garden and interior design, as well as food styling and event planning for a range of international clientele.

From the 1790s until World War I, Western museums filled their shelves with art and antiquities from around the world. These objects are now widely regarded as stolen from their countries of origin, and demands for their repatriation grow louder by the day. In The Compensations of Plunder, Justin M. Jacobs brings to light the historical context of the exodus of cultural treasures from northwestern China. Based on a close analysis of previously neglected archives in English, French, and Chinese, Jacobs finds that many local elites in China acquiesced to the removal of art and antiquities abroad, understanding their trade as currency for a cosmopolitan elite. In the decades after the 1911 Revolution, however, these antiquities went from being “diplomatic capital” to disputed icons of the emerging nation-state. A new generation of Chinese scholars began to criminalize the prior activities of archaeologists, erasing all memory of the pragmatic barter relationship that once existed in China. Recovering the voices of those local officials, scholars, and laborers who shaped the global trade in antiquities, The Compensations of Plunder brings historical grounding to a highly contentious topic in modern Chinese history and informs heated debates over cultural restitution throughout the world.

Transnational exchange has been an inseparable part of both the ancient and modern Silk Road. This paper shows how Rumi (1207-1273), a famous Persian Sufi poet, travels along the Silk Road in the 21st century. With the birth of a Rumi phenomenon in the West, Silk Road artists have rediscovered and adapted him for different purposes. Elif Shafak, the Turkish-British novelist and women’s rights activist, espouses feminist beliefs in her bestseller, The Forty Rules of Love (2010). Benefiting from the views of feminist theorists like Woolf, de Beauvoir and Friedan, this paper reveals how Shafak appropriates Rumi for her feminist purposes. Forty Rules of Love’s protagonist, Ella Rubinstein is analyzed, compared and contrasted with her former literary counterparts Pinhan and Zeliha, heroines of Shafak’s previous novels. By adapting Rumi’s definition of equality, Shafak shows how egalitarianism must pervade the relationship between women and men. The adaptation of Rumi’s ideas regarding the equality of sexes finds a different dimension when Shafak reveals that all humanity possesses femininity and masculinity at the same time. By means of ideas prevalent in the ancient Silk Road, the five classical elements theory, and the yin and yang principle, Shafak portrays unity within contradictions. It is concluded that although individuals might belong to different typologies of the five symbolic elements of nature, they can at the same time complement one another’s inharmonious personalities
peacefully. The process of integration of female and male sexes can be
expedited by opening up one’s heart to a universal love.

Silk, Slaves, and Stupas tells the stories of ten very different objects, considering their interaction with the peoples and cultures of the Silk Road—those who made them, carried them, received them, used them, sold them, worshipped them, and, in more recent times, bought them, conserved them, and curated them. From a delicate pair of earrings from a steppe tomb to a massive stupa deep in Central Asia, a hoard of Kushan coins stored in an Ethiopian monastery to a Hellenistic glass bowl from a southern Chinese tomb, and a fragment of Byzantine silk wrapping the bones of a French saint to a Bactrian ewer depicting episodes from the Trojan War, these objects show us something of the cultural diversity and interaction along these trading routes of Afro-Eurasia.

The transmission of Buddhism to China from Central Asia was launched through the Silk Road during the Later Han Dynasty in the 1st century C.E. I will discuss why the Han Chinese could accept Buddhism when they already had advanced religions such as Confucianism and Taoism. The earliest form of Chinese Buddhism was introduced to China; namely, Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma and early Mahāyāna literatures through distinguished rulers, scholars and pilgrimages from India and Central Asia. Kumārajīva (343–413) is one of the foreigner masters from Central Asia and through the remarkable development of Buddhism in Medieval Chinese Buddhism in the 5th century C.E. The Chinese started to understand Indian thought more accurately through the prolific translations of Kumārajīva. Through this, Taoist and Confucian notions were removed from Buddhist texts.

It is strongly believed that Kumārajīva made a remarkable contribution for Sarvāstivāda and Mahāyāna doctrines as well. Buddhist Scholars have considered that Kumārajīva played an important role for Mahāyāna as well as being a strong opponent of Hīnayāna. However, this assumption is quite controversial. Therefore, I will discuss the background of Chinese Buddhism prior to Kumārajīva’s arrival in Chang-an (Xian) during the Later Qin dynasty, his biography, prolific translation works; his works for the foundation of Mādhyamika in Medieval Chinese Buddhism.

In this paper, I will also put forward the argument that Kumārajīva was an advocator of Mahāyāna, especially for showing the new religious path to Mahāyāna Buddhism in China and being the founder of the Chinese Mādhyamika School (San-lun i.e. three treatises). I will consider the influence of Sarvāstivādin thought on Kumārajīva’s thought and especially, meditation texts included in the Āgamas of the Sarvāstivādin tradition. Therefore, I will argue that Kumārajīva’s remarkable contribution was for both Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna in Medieval Chinese Buddhism, discuss his Sarvāstivādin collaborators in translation works and his contribution to Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma and Vinaya.

In conclusion, I will show evidence that Kumārajīva usually was a supporter of Mahāyāna but also contributed to Hīnayāna Buddhism in Medieval Chinese Buddhism throughout his life and works.

Keywords: Kumārajīva, Transmission, Silk Road, Confucianism &Taoism, Hīnayāna, Sarvāstivāda, Mahāyāna, Medieval Chinese Buddhism and Chinese Mādhyamika.