The way of the samurai, the way of the warrior

Японские боевые искусства в русскоязычной литературе xix – начала xx веков Аннотация. В статье рассматриваются основные публикации, вышедшие в XIX – XX веках в Российской Империи, в которых упоминаются японские боевые искусства. Знакомство с японскими боевыми искусствами происходило параллельно знакомству с культурой и историей Японии. Первые упоминания о японских боевых искусствах можно встретить уже в записках капитана Головнина, изданных в 1818 году. Спектр рассмотренных публикаций включает научные и журнальные статьи, мемуары исторических личностей, русские переводы иностранной учебной и научно-популярной литературы. При написании статьи использовались основные ме-тоды исторического исследования: историко-генетический и историко-типологический, также использовался источниковедческий анализ. Статья призвана внести вклад в изучение истории японских боевых искусств в России, истории российского спорта, рукопашного боя и отечественного востоковедения. В статье отражен интерес дореволюционной русскоязычной публики к японским боевым искусствам и культуре в целом, а также этапы накопления практических и теоретических знаний в этой области. Отдельные печатные источники впервые использованы в качестве исторического материала для изучения рассматриваемого вопроса.

Der Weg des Samurai
Der  Weg des Samurai ist der Tod. Wenn ein Samurai sich zwischen Leben und Tod entscheiden muss, gibt es für ihn nur die schnelle Wahl des Todes. Das ist nicht besonders schwierig. Sei entschlossen und handle.

Wenn einem Samurai nur noch die Wahl zwischen Leben oder Tod bleibt, dann ist es für ihn nicht nötig, sein Ziel zu erreichen.

Fanatismus als Erfolgsrezept
Wir allen wollen leben. Und die meisten von uns passen ihr Verhalten diesem Wunsch an. Aber wenn wir unser Ziel verfehlen und weiterleben, sind wir Feiglinge. Zu sterben, ohne sein Ziel erreicht zu haben, ist schrecklich und zeugt von Fanatismus. Aber es ist keine Schande. Das ist der Kern vom Weg des Samurai.

Wer jeden Morgen und jeden Abend sein Herz prüft und dadurch fähig wird, so zu leben, als wäre sein Körper schon tot, den macht der Weg frei. Er wird sich nie etwas zuschulden kommen lassen und wird auch in seinem Gewerbe erfolgreich sein.

FECHAS Resumen. Los samuráis completaban su entrenamiento marcial mediante un viaje a lo largo de la geo-grafía japonesa para aprender de otras escuelas y en ocasiones, batirse con ellas poniendo a prueba sus aptitudes marciales. Sin embargo, estas peregrinaciones también comprendían otros aspectos como el religioso y el artístico en lo concerniente al sable japonés o nihontō. Palabras clave: Samurái; shugyō; nihontō; koryū. [en] Musha shugyō: the warrior pilgrimage. A brief approach to the martial training of the Japanese warrior through their travels Abstract: Samurai completed their martial training with a trip through the Japanese geography to learn from other schools and sometimes challenge other samurai to test their martial skills. However, these pilgrimages also included other aspects such as religious and artistic considerations related with the Japanese sword (nihontō). Sumario: Las peregrinaciones en Japón y su relación con la clase samurái; El musha shugyō, el viaje de adiestramiento del samurái; Ejemplos y evolución del musha shugyō; El fin del musha shugyō y el inicio de una nueva era. Cómo citar: Sala Ivars, M. (2018). Musha shugyō: la peregrinación del guerrero. Una aproximación a la formación marcial del guerrero japonés a través de sus viajes, en Mirai. Estudios Japoneses 2(2018), 115-127. 1. Las peregrinaciones en Japón y su relación con la clase samurái. Las peregrinaciones han existido en Japón desde los primeros tiempos de los que se conservan fuentes históricas. Al igual que en otros países, estos viajes estaban íntimamente relacionados con la religión, alcanzando a todos los estratos de la socie-1

Perkembangan tradisi harakiri tidak dapat dilepaskan dari berbagai pengaruh beberapa kepercayaan masyarakat Jepang seperti Neo-konfusius, Taoisme, Zen dan Shinto. Harakiri dianggap sebagai tindakan terhormat karena untuk melakukan tindakan ini harus memiliki keberanian yang luar
biasa.

En el antiguo imperio japonés surgió una nobleza de cuño feudal muy similar a la europea, pese a la distancia entre ambos y la escasa comunicación que existió entre ambos paises separados por más de once mil kilometros. Loss Samurais fueron el equivalente de los caballeros europeos, con su propio código de ideales. Igualmente surgió una heráldica propia y caractenristica por su forma no escutiforme, pues en el aditamente guerrero del cballero japonés no existía el escudoa

Dieser Text stellt eine gemäß dem "SHIn-Ken"-Prinzip erstellte Zusammenfassung über Moritz von Sachsens „Reveries Upon the Art of War“dar.
Daher enthält diese Zusammenfassung nicht nur die Lehre des Moritz von Sachsen, sondern wird im Sinne der japanischen vergleichenden Geisteswissenschaft „SHIn-Ken“ mit geballtem Führungswissen sowohl der östlichen als auch der westlichen Welt der vergangenen 2.500 Jahre kombiniert, da eine einzelne „reine“ Lehre wie eine rohe Kartoffel ist, zu der man Wasser, Salz, Pfeffer, Petersilie und Hitze hinzufügen muss, um daraus etwas nützliches zu kreieren, damit beim Leser kein neunmalkluges Kopfwissen, sondern eigenes Verstehen entsteht.

In questo saggio ci proponiamo un modello generale del samurai, costruito sull'interpretazione di due autori fondamentali, Daidòji Yuzàn (Introduzione alla Via del samurai) e Yamamoto Tsunemoto (Hagakure). I due testi hanno diversi punti in comune così che è possibile ricostruire un modello assiologico e deontologico comune, tale che può pensarsi come ad un modello unico della via del samurai.

From the Introdution, written by Luka Culiberg, guest editor of this special issue: The aim of the present issue of the Asian Studies journal is thus to approach the notion of bushidō from as many aspects as possible in order to further unveil some of the mystery informing this notion. The seed that bore fruit in the form of present issue was planted back in the summer of 2017, when The National Museum of Slovenia featured an exhibition, titled The Paths of the Samurai, displaying samurai warrior equipment and related paraphernalia. Among the numerous events accompanying the exhibition, the Department of Asian Studies at the University of Ljubljana, in cooperation with the National Museum, hosted a symposium with the aim to rethink, discuss and further elucidate the tenets that underlie the notion of the so-called “way of the samurai”. The majority of contributions in the present issue are based on papers presented at that symposium. At this point I would first like to express our gratitude to all who came to Ljubljana from abroad
to share their valuable insights on the subject; and second, I would like to thank everyone who submitted their contributions, thus making this journal issue possible.
I am more than convinced that the final result will serve as a valuable resource not just for the scholars of Japanese history, but for a much wider readership interested in the workings of ideology in general.

Der japanische Samurai und Schwertmeister Miyamoto Musashi gilt heutzutage als einer der bekanntesten Vertreter der japanischen Samurai-Kultur, obwohl er auf den ersten Blick der totale Gegensatz von Japans kollektivistischer Gesellschaftsstruktur gewesen ist, in der das Individuum zugunsten der Gemeinschaft in den Hintergrund tritt.

In dieser Forschungsarbeit wollen wir herausfinden, wer Musashi wirklich war und was ihn zu dem machte, was er wurde.

Dies ist Teil 1 von 4

[1. Abstract] Unlike his later works, Yamaga Sokō's Shidō was the very first attempt in Japanese intellectual history to comprehensively address the identity crisis of the samurai during the pax Tokugawa. As such, its importance is manifold – for one, it was one of the first attempts to transform the Confucian ideal of the noble man (君⼦) into a relevant and compelling moral philosophy, attuned to the complex realities of Tokugawa Japan, moving away from the previous, more scholastic attempts at Confucian interpretation. As such, it is not only offering us a view into the way Confucianism had naturalized during the Tokugawa period and had expanded to a broader audience than ever before, but it also hints at many of the social and political changes happening in 17 th century Japan. In the introductory study, I have detailed Yamaga Sokō's importance in Japanese intellectual history, including the reasons for his temporary demise and his rehabilitation by Yoshida Shōin, as well as his relevance today.

The figure of the samurai occupies a prominent place in Japanese culture-and an even larger place in perceptions thereof. For more than half its recorded history, the archipelago was politically and socially dominated by its warrior order. And while the samurai were officially abolished in 1871, the influence of these warriors and their traditions on popular and political culture has continued to grow and evolve. For Japanese and foreign audiences alike, the role of the samurai has become iconic, analogous to that of the cowboy in contemporary America: he is at once an entertaining, romantic figure and a fundamental symbol of the national character. Martial arts and sports derived from samurai traditions are practiced around the globe. Samurai are the heroes of films, television series, advertisements, manga, and anime. Corporate executives in the West look to samurai texts, such as Miyamoto Musashi's Gorin no sho (The Book of Five Rings; ca. 1645), as tools for understanding their Japanese counterparts. And politicians-particularly those on the right-continue to invoke samurai imagery for their causes. Yet, as historians of premodern and early modern Japan are only too painfully aware, popular perceptions of samurai customs, institutions, and behaviors are overwhelmingly dominated by misconceptions, misinformation, and outright fabrications. Some of this stems from deliberate attempts at distortion and the invention of tradition, such as the efforts by pundits in the Meiji, Taishō, and early Shōwa eras to manufacture an ostensibly ancient bushidō (Way of the Warrior) code and marshal it in the service of nationalism. But far more of it is a product of the relative paucity-especially in Western languages-of books for general readers by qualified historians. The resulting gap between the public appetite for information and scholars' efforts to address it has been filled largely by aficionados lacking in formal academic training on the subject and often even in the ability to read Japanese sources. The consequences of this situation can be amusing: years ago, for instance, a karate instructor in Japan related to me that a New Zealand man who came to train with him was utterly convinced that samurai were still living on some sort of reservation on the far side of a nearby mountain. They can also, however, be profoundly frustrating for those of us who spend semester after semester laboring to correct canards and caricatures deeply ingrained in the hearts and minds of our students. Constantine Vaporis's new volume represents a welcome, and exceedingly helpful, addition to the scholarly assault on the citadel of stereotypes and misinformation. As its title suggests, the book is a compendium rather than a research monograph. Addressing primarily general rather than scholarly audiences, Vaporis offers up 105 essays along with new translations of fifteen short texts, an extensive bibliography, and a

В статье рассмотрены основные черты образа тэнгу в японской мифологии и народных сказках. Рассмотрен процесс формирования образа тэнгу под воздействием древних традиций и культов, содержащих в своей основе тотемные, шаманские и анимистические элементы. Впервые рассмотрено влияние культа ворона Ятагарасу на формирование образа тэнгу. Выделены основные черты и характеристики архетипа древне-японского воина в шаманской традиции воинской культуры Японии.

В статье рассматриваются психологические аспекты подготовки японских воинов (буси) в школах традиционных боевых искусств и самурайских домах. Для преодоления и предотвращения негативных последствий стрессовых ситуаций в школах боевых искусств разрабатывались специальные методы тренировки, включавшие в себя разнообразные психофизические практики, идеологическое воспитание, выработку у воинов специфического отношения к жизни и смерти, специальные персональные психопрактики. На основании исследования источников, автором сделана попытка выделить основные черты и главные принципы психологической подготовки японских воинов, рассмотрены влияние религиозных учений на психологическую подготовку воинов, процесс эволюции методов от шаманских практик к практикам работы над сознанием, рассмотрена специфика идеологической пропаганды, значение психологических установок и практическое значение «Кодекса бусидо».

Портал психологических изданий PsyJournals.ru — http://psyjournals.ru/kip/2014/n3/71904.shtml [Психологические аспекты подготовки японских воинов - Культурно-историческая психология - 2014/3]

The Fourteenth Century Japan was marked by intense political instability and a legitimacy crisis that lasted half a century, in which two centers of power declared themselves simultaneously as legitimate – the Ashikaga bakufu and the Southern Court in Yoshino. In this context, warlords changed sides in a long civil war according to what was most favorable to them. This article seeks to examine up to what point the topoi of samurai loyalty was historically existent. Furthermore, it tries to make a general summary regarding the circulating ideas concerning loyalty, especially in the gunkimonogatari and buke kakun, as well as to trace a parallel between those ideas and the historical reality of the Japanese Middle Ages.

Madrid Palabras clave: Nanban, tsuba, nihontô, guarda. Resumen: Las tsuba son las guardas de los sables japoneses o nihontô, estas piezas además de cumplir una función defensiva y de protección de las manos del guerrero es un "lienzo" susceptible a numerosas decoraciones y apreciaciones estéticas. Conservamos tsuba desde el Periodo Kofun (250-538), y su fabricación y perfeccionamiento se fue produciendo a lo largo de la historia japonesa siendo un trabajo secundario para forjadores de sables, constructores de armaduras y fabricantes de espejos. La creciente demanda de guardas personalizadas y con determinado tipo de forja y decoración produjo que hacia mediados-finales del Periodo Muromachi, (entre 1450 y 1570) hasta hoy en día, cientos de familias se especializaran en la producción de estas guardas, surgiendo la figura del tsubakô o artista de tsuba de los cuales conservamos miles de piezas y firmas de escuelas y artistas independientes. De entre estas escuelas o estilos hablaremos del llamado Nanban tsuba que acoge tanto guardas fabricadas en el extranjero como guardas japonesas que acogen en su decoración motivos occidentales. En cualquier caso estaremos trabajando con tsuba que reflejan las relaciones internacionales que tenía Japón especialmente durante el siglo XVI. Abstract: The tsuba are the guards of the japanese swords or Nihontô, these guards in addition to their defensive and protective function of the hands of the warrior is a "canvas " where numerous decorations and aesthetic appreciations can be in it. We have tsuba from the Kofun Period (250-538), manufacturing and processing was occurring throughout Japanese history to be a secondary job of creators of swords (tôshô), armor builders (katchushi) and manufacturers of mirrors (kagamishi). The growing demand for custom guards and forging certain type decoration that occurred in mid-late Muromachi period (between 1450 and 1570) until today, hundreds of families

Modern combat has become greatly de-personalized (and one could argue, exacerbated) by long range drones, so-called smart bombs, stealthy technologies and the "virtual battlefield" of electronic data and commands.  The “art of the samurai” takes us back to an era when our dirty work wasn't done for us under a cloak of invisibility or by computers but was eye-to-eye, up-close, personal.  The greatly romanticized era of the samurai and their trusty swords reminds of us of a lost, contemplative art that beget peace and a rare mediation in composite craftsmanship.

Armenian historiography contains considerable information about ancient and medieval Armenian military ideology. In the works of fifth century historians Pavstos Buzand and Movses Khorenatsi, the commands and legacy of the Armenian sparapets (commanders in chief) to their successors articulate in detail the obligations and responsibilities of Armenian warriors. Their norms of conduct share striking similarities with the system of values of the Japanese samurai codified during the 16th to 18th centuries, as well as with later medieval West European chivalry of the eight to 14th centuries.

As two of the most romanticized symbols of traditional Japan, samurai and castles feature prominently in popular culture and tourist promotions, and serve as important markers of both regional and national identities. In spite of their ancient roots, popular images of both samurai and castles were largely formed during and after the late nineteenth century. Bringing together themes from my recent book, Inventing the Way of the Samurai, and my current research project on Japanese castles, this talk explores the modern origins of some of Japan’s most famous traditions, and how these were shaped by domestic and international agendas.

After 1868, samurai and castles faced the new Meiji order as relics of the discredited old regime. Viewed as backward and “feudal” in an age of “civilization and enlightenment,” samurai and castles suffered similar fates in the 1870s and 1880s as victims of popular apathy and even resentment. The eventual rehabilitation of the popular image of the samurai was a long and complicated process. Influenced by Western, especially Victorian, ideals of gentlemanship and medieval chivalry, a number of Japanese thinkers proposed similar moral guidelines for the new Japan. The “way of the samurai,” or bushidō, that emerged from this discourse rapidly gained in popularity after victory in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-5, and was soon widely portrayed as an ancient ethic and even the very “soul of Japan.”

This talk will explore the development of bushidō in modern Japan, comparing the ideological “revival” of the samurai spirit with the growing appreciation for castles, as efforts increased to “save” both of these “national symbols” in an era of growing national strength and confidence. The talk will further consider parallels in their subsequent histories up to the present day.

Тема статьи-сопоставление элементов шаманской традиции в Древней Японии и в индейском племени абсарока. Оставляя в стороне вопросы о месте боевых искусств в воинской культуре и общекультурном пространстве Японии (это тема специального исследования) и опираясь на данные исследователей, свидетельствующие о наличии в японских во­инских практиках черт, характерных для шаманизма, автор сосредотачивает внимание на сравнении практик и подходов к психофизической тренировке японских воинов и воинов североамериканского племени.
Ключевые слова: воинская культура, шаманизм, боевые искусства, индейцы, измененное состояние сознания, божественное откровение, видение, Япония, Катори.

«Spero di trovare una morte conforme al mio sogno di sempre, una morte degna del rivoluzionario e del reazionario che sono», così ha lasciato scritto il francese Pierre Drieu La Rochelle, suicida nel marzo del 1945, sul finire della seconda guerra mondiale. In quello stesso anno, in estremo Oriente, agli antipodi dell’Europa, sopravvissuto ai bombardamenti americani, il ventenne Kimitake Hiraoka diventava definitivamente Yukio Mishima, il quale venticinque anni dopo avrebbe saputo darsi una morte spettacolare e scandalosa, in perfetta aderenza alla figura di rivoluzionario reazionario con cui aveva nel frattempo inteso costruirsi anima e corpo. Secondo l’antico rituale samurai del seppuku, il 25 novembre del 1970 si uccideva uno dei più grandi scrittori del Novecento.
Ponte culturale tra Oriente ed Occidente, Mishima è stato l’artefice e il carnefice della propria gloria letteraria. Poche altre scritture scuotono e percuotono, affascinano e respingono, inquietano ed esaltano in misura così intensa, offrendo il proprio contenuto composto da una carica esplosiva, urticante, dentro la forma cristallina di una prosa elegante e sempre controllata. Il pensiero poetante e letterario di Yukio Mishima è un corto circuito tra il medioevo più feudale, gerarchico e guerriero, ed una modernità talmente avanzata da anticipare il postmoderno.
Fuori da ogni stereotipo, la ricerca di Danilo Breschi propone una completa analisi della vita e dell’opera dello scrittore giapponese. Il suo enigma è circumnavigato ed interrogato attraverso autori affini per gusto e destino, da Kierkegaard a Dostoevskij, da Burke a Rilke, da Pirandello a Camus, da Baudelaire a D’Annunzio, da Nietzsche a Kundera, da Proust a Cioran, da Wilde a Miller. Questo libro intende restituire Mishima alla sua grandezza, originalità e insanabile contraddizione di artista.

В статье рассматриваются место и роль поэзии в культуре японских самураев. В статье представлены основные этапы развития поэзии от ритуальных песен, связанных с мифологией Синто, до буддийской и светской поэзии воинов. Рассмотрены характерные для воинской культуры жанры: дзисэй и дока. Также в статье затронута тема отношения к поэзии со стороны различных военачальников и идеологов бусидо, роли поэзии в воспитании и ее места в жизни японского воина.

This article describes the place and the role of poetry in the culture of the Japanese samurai. The article presents the main stages of the development of poetry from the ritual songs associated with the mythology of Shinto to Buddhist and secular poetry of warriors. The characteristic for the military culture genres jisey and doka were described. The article also touched upon the relationship of poetry by various military leaders and ideologists of bushido, the role of poetry in education and its place in the life of a Japanese warrior.

The Samurai Game is a transformative role-playing game invented by George Leonard, a fourth dan black belt and Aikido sensei in Northern California. The game takes participants into 17th century samurai consciousness and is intended to allow players the opportunity to face their own death—and thereby, the patterns of their life.  Leonard is co-founder with Michael Murphy (Esalen Institute) of Integral Transformative Practice (ITP), an experiment in personal and collective transformation of consciousness..

В статье рассматриваются механизмы ограничения насилия в воинской культуре Японии в эпоху Эдо (1603-1868). Процесс трансформации в воинской культуры чести, становление корпуса сочинений «Кодекса Бусидо», а также разработка философских концепций в школах японских боевых искусств позволили значительно снизить напряженность в самурайской среде, что обеспечило стабильное развитие японского общества. Также рассмотрена ценность боевых искусств для преодоления духовно-нравственного кризиса личности в современном обществе.

Аннотация: Предметом исследования является философия японских школ боевых искусств. В статье рассматриваются философские категории «сущность» и «явление», как наиболее подробно разработанные составляющие философской системы японских школ боевых искусств. На основании воспринятых от учителей дзэн неоконфуцианских и буддистских концепций мастера боевых искусств и основатели школ разрабатывали собственную философскую систему, направленную прежде всего, на практическую реализацию философских принципов в практике боевых искусств и на воинском пути в целом. Исследование произведено на основании изучения исторических источников, сочинений мастеров боевых искусств, а также статей и научных работ ведущих специалистов в этой области. В статье продемонстрировано, что на основании понимания категориальной системы «сущность – явление» мастерами и основателями школ японских боевых искусств были разработаны стратегические принципы и тактические приемы, реализующие применение теоретических философских концепций в ежедневной практике и обучении воина. Кроме того, интерес представляет и теоретическое описание данных категорий.
Ключевые слова: сущность, явление, боевые искусства, японская философия, востоковедение, восточная философия, дзэн, неоконфуцианство, философия боевых искусств, философские категории
Review: The subject of the research is the philosophy of the Japanese martial arts schools.
The article deals with the philosophical category of "essence" and "phenomenon", as the most
developed components of the philosophical system of Japanese martial arts schools. On the
basis of Zen, Neo-Confucian and Buddhist concepts, martial arts masters and founders developed
their own philosophical system aimed primarily at the practical implementation of philosophical
principles in martial arts and warrior path in general. The research is based on the
analysis of historical sources, works of masters of martial arts as well as articles and scientific
papers of leading specialists in this field. The author of the article demonstrates that based
on the conceptual framework 'essence – phenomenon' the masters and founders of Japanese
martial arts schools developed strategic principles and tactics that implied the application of
theoretical philosophical concepts to daily practice and training of a soldier. In addition, theoretical
description of these categories is also interesting.
Keywords: Philosophy of martial arts, essence, phenomenon, martial arts, Japanese philosophy,
orientalism, oriental philosophy, zen, Neo-Confucianism, philosophical categories.

As two of the most romanticized symbols of traditional Japan, samurai and castles feature prominently in popular culture and tourist promotions, and serve as important markers of both regional and national identities. In spite of their ancient roots, popular images of them were largely formed during and after the late nineteenth century. After the Meiji restoration of 1868, samurai and castles faced the new order as relics of the discredited old regime. Viewed as backward and “feudal” in an age of “civilization and enlightenment, ” they suffered similar fates in the 1870s and 1880s as victims of popular apathy and even resentment. It was only after this time that attitudes towards Japan’s “feudal” heritage began to change, with modern concerns and ideas playing a vital role in the rehabilitation of Japan’s past.

Bringing together themes from Benesch’s recent book, Inventing the Way of the Samurai, and his current research project, this talk explores the development of Bushido in modern Japan, comparing the ideological “revival” of the samurai spirit with the growing appreciation for castles, as efforts increased to “save” both of these “national” symbols in an era of growing national strength and confidence.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the warrior archetype from both the five widely accepted tenets of the Bushido code (honor, courage, justice, loyalty, and self-control) and Jungian personality typology.

Subsequently, this researcher employs falsification and analysis of competing hypotheses to identify historical leverage points at which the various U.S. presidential administrations seemingly have allowed the warrior archetype to erode. Over-identification by law enforcement officials with the warrior archetype’s closest analog, the protector, will be also discussed. The protector, also referred to as the “protector-guardian” is the dominant archetype prevalent in modern policing.  The typological aspects of the guardian, including its primary, auxiliary, and inferior functions in temperament will be addressed later in this paper.  This paper subsequently explores the rise of obstacle course races as a viable path towards individuation for both the warrior and protector archetypes.

Lastly, this researcher presents his perspective on the value of studying the craft of archetypal pattern analysis as a process for self-growth and better understanding and serving within micro- and macro-level systems.

NOTE: The views and opinions expressed in this article are solely those of the author, and do not reflect official policies or perspectives of the United States government, the Department of the Navy, or the US Naval War College.

Reprinted with permission of Assisi Journal, Fall 2016 - Copyright Assisi Institute: Mystic, CT - All Rights Reserved

Inventing the Way of the Samurai examines the development of the 'way of the samurai' - bushidō - which is popularly viewed as a defining element of the Japanese national character and even the 'soul of Japan'. Rather than a continuation of ancient traditions, however, bushidō developed from a search for identity during Japan's modernization in the late nineteenth century. The former samurai class were widely viewed as a relic of a bygone age in the 1880s, and the first significant discussions of bushidō at the end of the decade were strongly influenced by contemporary European ideals of gentlemen and chivalry. At the same time, Japanese thinkers increasingly looked to their own traditions in search of sources of national identity, and this process accelerated as national confidence grew with military victories over China and Russia.

Inventing the Way of the Samurai considers the people, events, and writings that drove the rapid growth of bushidō, which came to emphasize martial virtues and absolute loyalty to the emperor. In the early twentieth century, bushidō became a core subject in civilian and military education, and was a key ideological pillar supporting the imperial state until its collapse in 1945. The close identification of bushidō with Japanese militarism meant that it was rejected immediately after the war, but different interpretations of bushidō were soon revived by both Japanese and foreign commentators seeking to explain Japan's past, present, and future. This volume further explores the factors behind the resurgence of bushidō, which has proven resilient through 130 years of dramatic social, political, and cultural change.

This study examines the development of the concept of “bushido,” or the “way of the warrior,” in modern Japan, focusing on the period between the mid-nineteenth century and the early 1930s.  The popular view holds that bushido was a centuries-old code of behavior rooted in the historical samurai class and transmitted into the modern period, where it was a fundamental component of Japanese militarism before 1945.  In fact, the concept of bushido was largely unknown before the last decade of the nineteenth century, and was widely disseminated only after 1900, especially after the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5.  This study argues that modern bushido discourse began in the 1880s, and was dependent on political and cultural currents relating to Japan’s modernization and the nation’s attempts to redefine itself in the face of foreign “others,” primarily China and the West.  Following more than a decade of largely unquestioned thrusts towards modernization and Westernization after 1868, Japanese thinkers looked to their own traditions in search of sources of national identity.  The first discussions of bushido at this time were not the work of conservative reactionaries, however, but were conceived by relatively progressive individuals with considerable international experience and a command of Western languages.  Some of the first modern writings on bushido clearly posit the concept as a potential native equivalent to the English ethic of “gentlemanship,” which was widely admired in late-nineteenth century Japan, and much of early bushido discourse should be seen primarily as a response to outside stimuli.  This study examines the causes and effects of the “bushido boom” that took place between 1898 and 1914, which firmly established the concept not only in Japan, but throughout the world.  In this context, this study analyzes the use of bushido by the Japanese military and educational system, as well as its popularization by prominent figures in the early twentieth century.  This study also examines the reasons for the decline in the popularity of bushido between 1914 and the early 1930s, thereby providing points of departure for future research on the trajectory of bushido from 1932 to the present day.