Designation: E 94 04

Standard Guide for

Radiographic Examination1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E 94; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of original
adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A superscript
epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

This standard has been approved for use by agencies of the Department of Defense.

1. Scope responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-

1.1 This guide2 covers satisfactory X-ray and gamma-ray priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
radiographic examination as applied to industrial radiographic bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. (See 1.4.)
film recording. It includes statements about preferred practice 1.6 If an NDT agency is used, the agency shall be qualified
without discussing the technical background which justifies the in accordance with Practice E 543.
preference. A bibliography of several textbooks and standard 2. Referenced Documents
documents of other societies is included for additional infor-
mation on the subject. 2.1 ASTM Standards: 3
1.2 This guide covers types of materials to be examined; E 543 Practice for Evaluating Agencies that Perform Non-
radiographic examination techniques and production methods; destructive Testing
radiographic film selection, processing, viewing, and storage; E 746 Test Method for Determining Relative Image Quality
maintenance of inspection records; and a list of available Response of Industrial Radiographic Film Systems
reference radiograph documents. E 747 Practice for Design, Manufacture, and Material
Grouping Classification of Wire Image Quality Indicators
NOTE 1Further information is contained in Guide E 999, Practice (IQI) Used for Radiology
E 1025, Test Methods E 1030 and E 1032.
E 801 Practice for Controlling Quality of Radiological Ex-
1.3 Interpretation and Acceptance Standards amination of Electronic Devices
Interpretation and acceptance standards are not covered by this E 999 Guide for Controlling the Quality of Industrial Ra-
guide, beyond listing the available reference radiograph docu- diographic Film Processing
ments for castings and welds. Designation of accept - reject E 1025 Practice for Design, Manufacture, and Material
standards is recognized to be within the cognizance of product Grouping Classification of Hole-Type Image Quality Indi-
specifications and generally a matter of contractual agreement cators (IQI) Used for Radiology
between producer and purchaser. E 1030 Test Method for Radiographic Examination of Me-
1.4 Safety PracticesProblems of personnel protection tallic Castings
against X rays and gamma rays are not covered by this E 1032 Test Method for Radiographic Examination of
document. For information on this important aspect of radiog- Weldments
raphy, reference should be made to the current document of the E 1079 Practice for Calibration of Transmission Densitom-
National Committee on Radiation Protection and Measure- eters
ment, Federal Register, U.S. Energy Research and Develop- E 1254 Guide for Storage of Radiographs and Unexposed
ment Administration, National Bureau of Standards, and to Industrial Radiographic Films
state and local regulations, if such exist. For specific radiation E 1316 Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations
safety information refer to NIST Handbook ANSI 43.3, 21 E 1390 Guide for Illuminators Used for Viewing Industrial
CFR 1020.40, and 29 CFR 1910.1096 or state regulations for Radiographs
agreement states. E 1735 Test Method for Determining Relative Image Qual-
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the ity of Industrial Radiographic Film Exposed to
safety problems, if any, associated with its use. It is the X-Radiation from 4 to 25 MV
E 1742 Practice for Radiographic Examination
E 1815 Test Method for Classification of Film Systems for
1
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E07 on Nondestruc-
tive Testing and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E07.01 on Radiology
(X and Gamma) Method.
3
Current edition approved January 1, 2004. Published February 2004. Originally For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
approved in 1952. Last previous edition approved in 2000 as E 94 - 00. contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
2
For ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code applications see related Guide Standards volume information, refer to the standards Document Summary page on
SE-94 in Section V of that Code. the ASTM website.

Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.

1
 E 94 04
Industrial Radiography 5.1.4 Ways and means to eliminate scattered radiation,
2.2 ANSI Standards: 5.1.5 Film system class,
PH1.41 Specifications for Photographic Film for Archival 5.1.6 Source to film distance,
Records, Silver-Gelatin Type, on Polyester Base4 5.1.7 Image quality indicators (IQIs),
PH2.22 Methods for Determining Safety Times of Photo- 5.1.8 Screens and filters,
graphic Darkroom Illumination4 5.1.9 Geometry of part or component configuration,
PH4.8 Methylene Blue Method for Measuring Thiosulfate 5.1.10 Identification and location markers, and
and Silver Densitometric Method for Measuring Residual 5.1.11 Radiographic quality level.
Chemicals in Films, Plates, and Papers4
T9.1 Imaging Media (Film)Silver-Gelatin Type Specifi-
6. Radiographic Quality Level
cations for Stability4
T9.2 Imaging MediaPhotographic Process Film Plate and 6.1 Information on the design and manufacture of image
Paper Filing Enclosures and Storage Containers4 quality indicators (IQIs) can be found in Practices E 747,
2.3 Federal Standards: E 801, E 1025, and E 1742.
Title 21, Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 1020.40, 6.2 The quality level usually required for radiography is
Safety Requirements of Cabinet X-Ray Systems5 2 % (2-2T when using hole type IQI) unless a higher or lower
Title 29, Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 1910.96, quality is agreed upon between the purchaser and the supplier.
Ionizing Radiation (X-Rays, RF, etc.)5 At the 2 % subject contrast level, three quality levels of
2.4 Other Document: inspection, 2-1T, 2-2T, and 2-4T, are available through the
NBS Handbook ANSI N43.3 General Radiation Safety design and application of the IQI (Practice E 1025, Table 1).
Installations Using NonMedical X-Ray and Sealed Other levels of inspection are available in Practice E 1025
Gamma Sources up to 10 MeV6 Table 1. The level of inspection specified should be based on
the service requirements of the product. Great care should be
3. Terminology taken in specifying quality levels 2-1T, 1-1T, and 1-2T by first
3.1 DefinitionsFor definitions of terms used in this guide, determining that these quality levels can be maintained in
refer to Terminology E 1316. production radiography.
NOTE 2The first number of the quality level designation refers to IQI
4. Significance and Use thickness expressed as a percentage of specimen thickness; the second
4.1 Within the present state of the radiographic art, this number refers to the diameter of the IQI hole that must be visible on the
guide is generally applicable to available materials, processes, radiograph, expressed as a multiple of penetrameter thickness, T.
and techniques where industrial radiographic films are used as 6.3 If IQIs of material radiographically similar to that being
the recording media. examined are not available, IQIs of the required dimensions
4.2 LimitationsThis guide does not take into consider- but of a lower-absorption material may be used.
ation special benefits and limitations resulting from the use of
6.4 The quality level required using wire IQIs shall be
nonfilm recording media or readouts such as paper, tapes,
equivalent to the 2-2T level of Practice E 1025 unless a higher
xeroradiography, fluoroscopy, and electronic image intensifi-
or lower quality level is agreed upon between purchaser and
cation devices. Although reference is made to documents that
supplier. Table 4 of Practice E 747 gives a list of various
may be used in the identification and grading, where appli-
hole-type IQIs and the diameter of the wires of corresponding
cable, of representative discontinuities in common metal cast-
EPS with the applicable 1T, 2T, and 4T holes in the plaque IQI.
ings and welds, no attempt has been made to set standards of
Appendix X1 of Practice E 747 gives the equation for calcu-
acceptance for any material or production process. Radiogra-
lating other equivalencies, if needed.
phy will be consistent in sensitivity and resolution only if the
effect of all details of techniques, such as geometry, film,
7. Energy Selection
filtration, viewing, etc., is obtained and maintained.
7.1 X-ray energy affects image quality. In general, the lower
5. Quality of Radiographs the energy of the source utilized the higher the achievable
5.1 To obtain quality radiographs, it is necessary to consider radiographic contrast, however, other variables such as geom-
as a minimum the following list of items. Detailed information etry and scatter conditions may override the potential advan-
on each item is further described in this guide. tage of higher contrast. For a particular energy, a range of
5.1.1 Radiation source (X-ray or gamma), thicknesses which are a multiple of the half value layer, may be
5.1.2 Voltage selection (X-ray), radiographed to an acceptable quality level utilizing a particu-
5.1.3 Source size (X-ray or gamma), lar X-ray machine or gamma ray source. In all cases the
specified IQI (penetrameter) quality level must be shown on
the radiograph. In general, satisfactory results can normally be
4
Available from American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 25 W. 43rd St., obtained for X-ray energies between 100 kV to 500 kV in a
4th Floor, New York, NY 10036.
5
range between 2.5 to 10 half value layers (HVL) of material
Available from U.S. Government Printing Office Superintendent of Documents,
732 N. Capitol St., NW, Mail Stop: SDE, Washington, DC 20401.
thickness (see Table 1). This range may be extended by as
6
Available from National Technical Information Service (NTIS), U.S. Depart- much as a factor of 2 in some situations for X-ray energies in
ment of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Rd., Springfield, VA 22161. the 1 to 25 MV range primarily because of reduced scatter.

2
 E 94 04
TABLE 1 Typical Steel HVL Thickness in Inches [mm] for associated film processing system. Users may obtain a classi-
Common Energies fication table from the film manufacturer for the film system
Thickness, used in production radiography. A choice of film class can be
Energy
Inches [mm]
made as provided in Test Method E 1815. Additional specific
120 kV 0.10 [2.5] details regarding classification of film systems is provided in
150 kV 0.14 [3.6]
200 kV 0.20 [5.1] Test Method E 1815. ANSI Standards PH1.41, PH4.8, T9.1,
250 kV 0.25 [6.4] and T9.2 provide specific details and requirements for film
400 kV (Ir 192) 0.35 [8.9]
1 MV 0.57 [14.5]
manufacturing.
2 MV (Co 60) 0.80 [20.3]
4 MV 1.00 [25.4] 10. Filters
6 MV 1.15 [29.2]
10 MV 1.25 [31.8] 10.1 DefinitionFilters are uniform layers of material
16 MV and higher 1.30 [33.0] placed between the radiation source and the film.
10.2 PurposeThe purpose of filters is to absorb the softer
components of the primary radiation, thus resulting in one or
8. Radiographic Equivalence Factors several of the following practical advantages:
8.1 The radiographic equivalence factor of a material is that 10.2.1 Decreasing scattered radiation, thus increasing con-
factor by which the thickness of the material must be multi- trast.
plied to give the thickness of a standard material (often steel) 10.2.2 Decreasing undercutting, thus increasing contrast.
which has the same absorption. Radiographic equivalence 10.2.3 Decreasing contrast of parts of varying thickness.
factors of several of the more common metals are given in 10.3 LocationUsually the filter will be placed in one of
Table 2, with steel arbitrarily assigned a factor of 1.0. The the following two locations:
factors may be used: 10.3.1 As close as possible to the radiation source, which
8.1.1 To determine the practical thickness limits for radia- minimizes the size of the filter and also the contribution of the
tion sources for materials other than steel, and filter itself to scattered radiation to the film.
8.1.2 To determine exposure factors for one metal from 10.3.2 Between the specimen and the film in order to absorb
exposure techniques for other metals. preferentially the scattered radiation from the specimen. It
should be noted that lead foil and other metallic screens (see
9. Film 13.1) fulfill this function.
9.1 Various industrial radiographic film are available to 10.4 Thickness and Filter Material The thickness and
meet the needs of production radiographic work. However, material of the filter will vary depending upon the following:
definite rules on the selection of film are difficult to formulate 10.4.1 The material radiographed.
because the choice depends on individual user requirements. 10.4.2 Thickness of the material radiographed.
Some user requirements are as follows: radiographic quality 10.4.3 Variation of thickness of the material radiographed.
levels, exposure times, and various cost factors. Several 10.4.4 Energy spectrum of the radiation used.
methods are available for assessing image quality levels (see 10.4.5 The improvement desired (increasing or decreasing
Test Method E 746, and Practices E 747 and E 801). Informa- contrast). Filter thickness and material can be calculated or
tion about specific products can be obtained from the manu- determined empirically.
facturers.
9.2 Various industrial radiographic films are manufactured 11. Masking
to meet quality level and production needs. Test Method 11.1 Masking or blocking (surrounding specimens or cov-
E 1815 provides a method for film manufacturer classification ering thin sections with an absorptive material) is helpful in
of film systems. A film system consist of the film and reducing scattered radiation. Such a material can also be used

TABLE 2 Approximate Radiographic Equivalence Factors for Several Metals (Relative to Steel)
Energy Level
Metal
192 60
100 kV 150 kV 220 kV 250 kV 400 kV 1 MV 2 MV 4 to 25 MV Ir Co
Magnesium 0.05 0.05 0.08
Aluminum 0.08 0.12 0.18 0.35 0.35
Aluminum alloy 0.10 0.14 0.18 0.35 0.35
Titanium 0.54 0.54 0.71 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
Iron/all steels 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Copper 1.5 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.1
Zinc 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0
Brass 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.0
Inconel X 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3
Monel 1.7 1.2
Zirconium 2.4 2.3 2.0 1.7 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.0
Lead 14.0 14.0 12.0 5.0 2.5 2.7 4.0 2.3
Hafnium 14.0 12.0 9.0 3.0
Uranium 20.0 16.0 12.0 4.0 3.9 12.6 3.4

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 E 94 04
to equalize the absorption of different sections, but the loss of 13.2.1 Lead oxide screens perform in a similar manner to
detail may be high in the thinner sections. lead foil screens except that their equivalence in lead foil
thickness approximates 0.0005 in. [0.013 mm].
12. Back-Scatter Protection 13.2.2 Copper screens have somewhat less absorption and
12.1 Effects of back-scattered radiation can be reduced by intensification than lead screens, but may provide somewhat
confining the radiation beam to the smallest practical cross better radiographic sensitivity with higher energy above 1 MV.
section and by placing lead behind the film. In some cases 13.2.3 Gold, tantalum, or other heavy metal screens may be
either or both the back lead screen and the lead contained in the used in cases where lead cannot be used.
back of the cassette or film holder will furnish adequate 13.3 Fluorescent ScreensFluorescent screens may be
protection against back-scattered radiation. In other instances, used as required providing the required image quality is
this must be supplemented by additional lead shielding behind achieved. Proper selection of the fluorescent screen is required
the cassette or film holder. to minimize image unsharpness. Technical information about
12.2 If there is any question about the adequacy of protec- specific fluorescent screen products can be obtained from the
tion from back-scattered radiation, a characteristic symbol manufacturers. Good film-screen contact and screen cleanli-
(frequently a 18-in. [3.2-mm] thick letter B) should be attached ness are required for successful use of fluorescent screens.
to the back of the cassette or film holder, and a radiograph Additional information on the use of fluorescent screens is
made in the normal manner. If the image of this symbol provided in Appendix X1.
appears on the radiograph as a lighter density than background, 13.4 Screen CareAll screens should be handled carefully
it is an indication that protection against back-scattered radia- to avoid dents and scratches, dirt, or grease on active surfaces.
tion is insufficient and that additional precautions must be Grease and lint may be removed from lead screens with a
taken. solvent. Fluorescent screens should be cleaned in accordance
with the recommendations of the manufacturer. Screens show-
13. Screens ing evidence of physical damage should be discarded.
13.1 Metallic Foil Screens: 14. Radiographic Image Quality
13.1.1 Lead foil screens are commonly used in direct 14.1 Radiographic image quality is a qualitative term used
contact with the films, and, depending upon their thickness, to describe the capability of a radiograph to show flaws in the
and composition of the specimen material, will exhibit an area under examination. There are three fundamental compo-
intensifying action at as low as 90 kV. In addition, any screen nents of radiographic image quality as shown in Fig. 1. Each
used in front of the film acts as a filter (Section 10) to component is an important attribute when considering a
preferentially absorb scattered radiation arising from the speci- specific radiographic technique or application and will be
men, thus improving radiographic quality. The selection of lead briefly discussed below.
screen thickness, or for that matter, any metallic screen 14.2 Radiographic contrast between two areas of a radio-
thickness, is subject to the same considerations as outlined in graph is the difference between the film densities of those
10.4. Lead screens lessen the scatter reaching the film regard- areas. The degree of radiographic contrast is dependent upon
less of whether the screens permit a decrease or necessitate an both subject contrast and film contrast as illustrated in Fig. 1.
increase in the radiographic exposure. To avoid image unsharp- 14.2.1 Subject contrast is the ratio of X-ray or gamma-ray
ness due to screens, there should be intimate contact between intensities transmitted by two selected portions of a specimen.
the lead screen and the film during exposure. Subject contrast is dependent upon the nature of the specimen
13.1.2 Lead foil screens of appropriate thickness should be (material type and thickness), the energy (spectral composition,
used whenever they improve radiographic quality or penetram- hardness or wavelengths) of the radiation used and the intensity
eter sensitivity or both. The thickness of the front lead screens and distribution of scattered radiation. It is independent of
should be selected with care to avoid excessive filtration in the time, milliamperage or source strength (curies), source distance
radiography of thin or light alloy materials, particularly at the and the characteristics of the film system.
lower kilovoltages. In general, there is no exposure advantage 14.2.2 Film contrast refers to the slope (steepness) of the
to the use of 0.005 in. in front and back lead screens below 125 film system characteristic curve. Film contrast is dependent
kV in the radiography of 14-in. [6.35-mm] or lesser thickness upon the type of film, the processing it receives and the amount
steel. As the kilovoltage is increased to penetrate thicker of film density. It also depends upon whether the film was
sections of steel, however, there is a significant exposure exposed with lead screens (or without) or with fluorescent
advantage. In addition to intensifying action, the back lead screens. Film contrast is independent, for most practical
screens are used as protection against back-scattered radiation purposes, of the wavelength and distribution of the radiation
(see Section 12) and their thickness is only important for this reaching the film and, hence is independent of subject contrast.
function. As exposure energy is increased to penetrate greater For further information, consult Test Method E 1815.
thicknesses of a given subject material, it is customary to 14.3 Film system granularity is the objective measurement
increase lead screen thickness. For radiography using radioac- of the local density variations that produce the sensation of
tive sources, the minimum thickness of the front lead screen graininess on the radiographic film (for example, measured
should be 0.005 in. [0.13 mm] for iridium-192, and 0.010 in. with a densitometer with a small aperture of # 0.0039 in. [0.1
[0.25 mm] for cobalt-60. mm]). Graininess is the subjective perception of a mottled
13.2 Other Metallic Screen Materials: random pattern apparent to a viewer who sees small local

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 E 94 04

Radiographic Image Quality

Radiographic Contrast Film System Radiographic Definition
Granularity
Subject Film Grain size and Inherent Geometric
Contrast Contrast distribution Unsharpness Unsharpness
within the
Affected by: Affected by: Affected by: Affected by:
film emulsion
Absorption Type Degree of Focal spot
Processing
differences of film screen-film or source
conditions
in specimen Degree of contact physical size
(type and activity
(thickness, development Total film Source-to-film
of developer,
composition, (type of thickness distance
temperature
density) developer, Single or Specimen-
of developer,
Radiation time, double emulsion to-film
etc.)
wavelength temperature coatings distance
Type of
Scattered and activity Radiation Abruptness of
screens (that is,
radiation of developer, quality thickness
fluorescent,
degree of Type and changes in
lead or none)
agitation) thickness specimen
Radiation
Film density of screens Motion of
quality (that is,
Type of (fluorescent, specimen or
energy level,
screens (that is, lead or none) radiation
filtration, etc.
fluorescent, source
Exposure
lead or none)
quanta (that is,
intensity, dose,
Reduced or
etc.)
enhanced by:
Masks and
diaphragms
Filters
Lead screens
Potter-Bucky
diaphragms

FIG. 1 Variables of Radiographic Image Quality

density variations in an area of overall uniform density (that is, where:

the visual impression of irregularity of silver deposit in a Ug = geometric unsharpness,
processed radiograph). The degree of granularity will not affect F = maximum projected dimension of radiation source,
the overall spatial radiographic resolution (expressed in line t = distance from source side of specimen to film, and
pairs per mm, etc.) of the resultant image and is usually do = source-object distance.
independent of exposure geometry arrangements. Granularity
NOTE 3do and t must be in the same units of measure; the units of Ug
is affected by the applied screens, screen-film contact and film will be in the same units as F.
processing conditions. For further information on detailed NOTE 4A nomogram for the determination of Ug is given in Fig. 3
perceptibility, consult Test Method E 1815. (inch-pound units). Fig. 4 represents a nomogram in metric units.
14.4 Radiographic definition refers to the sharpness of the Example:
image (both the image outline as well as image detail). Given:
Radiographic definition is dependent upon the inherent un- Source-object distance (do) = 40 in.,
Source size (F) = 500 mils, and
sharpness of the film system and the geometry of the radio-
Source side of specimen to film distance (t) = 1.5 in.
graphic exposure arrangement (geometric unsharpness) as Draw a straight line (dashed in Fig. 3) between 500 mils on the F scale and
illustrated in Fig. 1. 1.5 in. on the t scale. Note the point on intersection (P) of this line with
14.4.1 Inherent unsharpness (Ui) is the degree of visible the pivot line. Draw a straight line (solid in Fig. 3) from 40 in. on the do
detail resulting from geometrical aspects within the film-screen scale through point P and extend to the Ug scale. Intersection of this line
system, that is, screen-film contact, screen thickness, total with the Ug scale gives geometrical unsharpness in mils, which in the
example is 19 mils.
thickness of the film emulsions, whether single or double-
coated emulsions, quality of radiation used (wavelengths, etc.) Inasmuch as the source size, F, is usually fixed for a given
and the type of screen. Inherent unsharpness is independent of radiation source, the value of Ug is essentially controlled by the
exposure geometry arrangements. simple do/t ratio.
14.4.2 Geometric unsharpness (Ug) determines the degree Geometric unsharpness (Ug) can have a significant effect on
of visible detail resultant from an in-focus exposure arrange- the quality of the radiograph; therefore source-to-film-distance
ment consisting of the source-to-film-distance, object-to-film- (SFD) selection is important. The geometric unsharpness (Ug)
distance and focal spot size. Fig. 2(a) illustrates these condi- equation, Eq 1, is for information and guidance and provides a
tions. Geometric unsharpness is given by the equation: means for determining geometric unsharpness values. The
Ug 5 Ft/do (1) amount or degree of unsharpness should be minimized when
establishing the radiographic technique.

5
 E 94 04

FIG. 2 Effects of Object-Film Geometry

6
 E 94 04

FIG. 3 Nomogram for Determining Geometrical Unsharpness (Inch-Pound Units)

15. Radiographic Distortion 16. Exposure Calculations or Charts

15.1 The radiographic image of an object or feature within 16.1 Development or procurement of an exposure chart or
an object may be larger or smaller than the object or feature calculator is the responsibility of the individual laboratory.
itself, because the penumbra of the shadow is rarely visible in 16.2 The essential elements of an exposure chart or calcu-
a radiograph. Therefore, the image will be larger if the object lator must relate the following:
or feature is larger than the source of radiation, and smaller if 16.2.1 Source or machine,
object or feature is smaller than the source. The degree of 16.2.2 Material type,
reduction or enlargement will depend on the source-to-object 16.2.3 Material thickness,
and object-to-film distances, and on the relative sizes of the 16.2.4 Film type (relative speed),
source and the object or feature (Fig. 2(b) and (c)). 16.2.5 Film density, (see Note 5),
15.2 The direction of the central beam of radiation should 16.2.6 Source or source to film distance,
be perpendicular to the surface of the film whenever possible. 16.2.7 Kilovoltage or isotope type,
The object image will be distorted if the film is not aligned
perpendicular to the central beam. Different parts of the object NOTE 5For detailed information on film density and density measure-
ment calibration, see Practice E 1079.
image will be distorted different amount depending on the
extent of the film to central beam offset (Fig. 2(d)). 16.2.8 Screen type and thickness,

7
 E 94 04

FIG. 4 Nomogram for Determining Geometrical Unsharpness (Metric Units)

16.2.9 Curies or milliampere/minutes, may be adjusted to suit the exposure chart. The exposure chart,
16.2.10 Time of exposure, when using a dry processing method, should be corrected
16.2.11 Filter (in the primary beam), based upon the time-temperature changes of the processor.
16.2.12 Time-temperature development for hand process-
ing; access time for automatic processing; time-temperature 17. Technique File
development for dry processing, and 17.1 It is recommended that a radiographic technique log or
16.2.13 Processing chemistry brand name, if applicable. record containing the essential elements be maintained.
16.3 The essential elements listed in 16.2 will be accurate 17.2 The radiographic technique log or record should con-
for isotopes of the same type, but will vary with X-ray tain the following:
equipment of the same kilovoltage and milliampere rating. 17.2.1 Description, photo, or sketch of the test object
16.4 Exposure charts should be developed for each X-ray illustrating marker layout, source placement, and film location.
machine and corrected each time a major component is 17.2.2 Material type and thickness,
replaced, such as the X-ray tube or high-voltage transformer. 17.2.3 Source to film distance,
16.5 The exposure chart should be corrected when the 17.2.4 Film type,
processing chemicals are changed to a different manufacturers 17.2.5 Film density, (see Note 5),
brand or the time-temperature relationship of the processor 17.2.6 Screen type and thickness,

8
 E 94 04
17.2.7 Isotope or X-ray machine identification, ined, whenever practical, and not on the cassette. Their exact
17.2.8 Curie or milliampere minutes, locations should also be marked on the surface of the part being
17.2.9 IQI and shim thickness, radiographed, thus permitting the area of interest to be located
17.2.10 Special masking or filters, accurately on the part, and they should remain on the part
17.2.11 Collimator or field limitation device, during radiographic inspection. Their exact location may be
17.2.12 Processing method, and permanently marked in accordance with the customers re-
17.2.13 View or location. quirements.
17.3 The recommendations of 17.2 are not mandatory, but 19.2.2 Location markers are also used in assisting the
are essential in reducing the overall cost of radiography, and radiographic interpreter in marking off defective areas of
serve as a communication link between the radiographic components, castings, or defects in weldments; also, sorting
interpreter and the radiographic operator. good and rejectable items when more than one item is
radiographed on the same film.
18. Penetrameters (Image Quality Indicators) 19.2.3 Sufficient markers must be used to provide evidence
18.1 Practices E 747, E 801, E 1025, and E 1742 should be on the radiograph that the required coverage of the object being
consulted for detailed information on the design, manufacture examined has been obtained, and that overlap is evident,
and material grouping of IQIs. Practice E 801 addresses IQIs especially during radiography of weldments and castings.
for examination of electronic devices and provides additional 19.2.4 Parts that must be identified permanently may have
details for positioning IQIs, number of IQIs required, and so the serial numbers or section numbers, or both, stamped or
forth. written upon them with a marking pen with a special indelible
18.2 Test Methods E 746 and E 1735 should be consulted ink, engraved, die stamped, or etched. In any case, the part
for detailed information regarding IQIs which are used for should be marked in an area not to be removed in subsequent
determining relative image quality response of industrial film. fabrication. If die stamps are used, caution is required to
The IQIs can also be used for measuring the image quality of prevent breakage or future fatigue failure. The lowest stressed
the radiographic system or any component of the systems surface of the part should be used for this stamping. Where
equivalent penetrameter sensitivity (EPS) performance. marking or stamping of the part is not permitted for some
18.2.1 An example for determining and EPS performance reason, a marked reference drawing or shooting sketch is
evaluation of several X-ray machines is as follows: recommended.
18.2.1.1 Keep the film and film processing parameters
constant, and take multiple image quality exposures with all 20. Storage of Film
machines being evaluated. The machines should be set for a 20.1 Unexposed films should be stored in such a manner
prescribed exposure as stated in the standard and the film that they are protected from the effects of light, pressure,
density equalized. By comparison of the resultant films, the excessive heat, excessive humidity, damaging fumes or vapors,
relative EPS variations between the machines can be deter- or penetrating radiation. Film manufacturers should be con-
mined. sulted for detailed recommendations on film storage. Storage
18.2.2 Exposure condition variables may also be studied of film should be on a first in, first out basis.
using this plaque. 20.2 More detailed information on film storage is provided
18.2.3 While Test Method E 746 plaque can be useful in in Guide E 1254.
quantifying relative radiographic image quality, these other
applications of the plaque may be useful. 21. Safelight Test
19. Identification of and Location Markers on 21.1 Films should be handled under safelight conditions in
Radiographs accordance with the film manufacturers recommendations.
19.1 Identification of Radiographs: ANSI PH2.22 can be used to determine the adequacy of
19.1.1 Each radiograph must be identified uniquely so that safelight conditions in a darkroom.
there is a permanent correlation between the part radiographed
and the film. The type of identification and method by which 22. Cleanliness and Film Handling
identification is achieved shall be as agreed upon between the 22.1 Cleanliness is one of the most important requirements
customer and inspector. for good radiography. Cassettes and screens must be kept
19.1.2 The minimum identification should at least include clean, not only because dirt retained may cause exposure or
the following: the radiographic facilitys identification and processing artifacts in the radiographs, but because such dirt
name, the date, part number and serial number, if used, for may also be transferred to the loading bench, and subsequently
unmistakable identification of radiographs with the specimen. to other film or screens.
The letter R should be used to designate a radiograph of a 22.2 The surface of the loading bench must be kept clean.
repair area, and may include 1, 2, etc., for the number of Where manual processing is used cleanliness will be promoted
repair. by arranging the darkroom with processing facilities on one
19.2 Location Markers: side and film-handling facilities on the other. The darkroom
19.2.1 Location markers (that is, lead or high-atomic num- will then have a wet side and a dry side and the chance of
ber metals or letters that are to appear as images on the chemical contamination of the loading bench will be relatively
radiographic film) should be placed on the part being exam- slight.

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22.3 Films should be handled only at their edges, and with 25.6 Stop Bath or RinseAfter development is complete,
dry, clean hands to avoid finger marks on film surfaces. the activity of developer remaining in the emulsion should be
22.4 Sharp bending, excessive pressure, and rough handling neutralized by an acid stop bath or, if this is not possible, by
of any kind must be avoided. rinsing with vigorous agitation in clear water. Follow the film
manufacturers recommendation of stop bath composition (or
23. Film Processing, General length of alternative rinse), time immersed, and life of bath.
23.1 To produce a satisfactory radiograph, the care used in 25.7 FixingThe films must not touch one another in the
making the exposure must be followed by equal care in fixer. Agitate the hangers vertically for about 10 s and again at
processing. The most careful radiographic techniques can be the end of the first minute, to ensure uniform and rapid fixation.
nullified by incorrect or improper darkroom procedures. Keep them in the fixer until fixation is complete (that is, at least
23.2 Sections 24-26 provide general information for film twice the clearing time), but not more than 15 min in relatively
processing. Detailed information on film processing is pro- fresh fixer. Frequent agitation will shorten the time of fixation.
vided in Guide E 999. 25.8 Fixer NeutralizingThe use of a hypo eliminator or
fixer neutralizer between fixation and washing may be advan-
24. Automatic Processing tageous. These materials permit a reduction of both time and
24.1 Automatic ProcessingThe essence of the automatic amount of water necessary for adequate washing. The recom-
processing system is control. The processor maintains the mendations of the manufacturers as to preparation, use, and
chemical solutions at the proper temperature, agitates and useful life of the baths should be observed rigorously.
replenishes the solutions automatically, and transports the films 25.9 WashingThe washing efficiency is a function of
mechanically at a carefully controlled speed throughout the wash water, its temperature, and flow, and the film being
processing cycle. Film characteristics must be compatible with washed. Generally, washing is very slow below 60F [16C].
processing conditions. It is, therefore, essential that the recom- When washing at temperatures above 85F [30C], care should
mendations of the film, processor, and chemical manufacturers be exercised not to leave films in the water too long. The films
be followed. should be washed in batches without contamination from new
24.2 Automatic Processing, DryThe essence of dry auto- film brought over from the fixer. If pressed for capacity, as
matic processing is the precise control of development time more films are put in the wash, partially washed film should be
and temperature which results in reproducibility of radio- moved in the direction of the inlet.
graphic density. Film characteristics must be compatible with 25.9.1 The cascade method of washing uses less water and
processing conditions. It is, therefore, essential that the recom- gives better washing for the same length of time. Divide the
mendations of the film and processor manufacturers be fol- wash tank into two sections (may be two tanks). Put the films
lowed. from the fixer in the outlet section. After partial washing, move
the batch of film to the inlet section. This completes the wash
25. Manual Processing in fresh water.
25.1 Film and chemical manufacturers should be consulted 25.9.2 For specific washing recommendations, consult the
for detailed recommendations on manual film processing. This film manufacturer.
section outlines the steps for one acceptable method of manual
25.10 Wetting AgentDip the film for approximately 30 s
processing.
in a wetting agent. This makes water drain evenly off film
25.2 PreparationNo more film should be processed than
which facilitates quick, even drying.
can be accommodated with a minimum separation of 12 in.
[12.7 mm]. Hangers are loaded and solutions stirred before 25.11 Residual Fixer Concentrations If the fixing chemi-
starting development. cals are not removed adequately from the film, they will in time
25.3 Start of DevelopmentStart the timer and place the cause staining or fading of the developed image. Residual fixer
films into the developer tank. Separate to a minimum distance concentrations permissible depend upon whether the films are
of 12 in. [12.7 mm] and agitate in two directions for about 15 to be kept for commercial purposes (3 to 10 years) or must be
s. of archival quality. Archival quality processing is desirable for
25.4 DevelopmentNormal development is 5 to 8 min at all radiographs whenever average relative humidity and tem-
68F [20C]. Longer development time generally yields faster perature are likely to be excessive, as is the case in tropical and
film speed and slightly more contrast. The manufacturers subtropical climates. The method of determining residual fixer
recommendation should be followed in choosing a develop- concentrations may be ascertained by reference to ANSI
ment time. When the temperature is higher or lower, develop- PH4.8, PH1.28, and PH1.41.
ment time must be changed. Again, consult manufacturer- 25.12 DryingDrying is a function of (1) film (base and
recommended development time versus temperature charts. emulsion); (2) processing (hardness of emulsion after washing,
Other recommendations of the manufacturer to be followed are use of wetting agent); and (3) drying air (temperature, humid-
replenishment rates, renewal of solutions, and other specific ity, flow). Manual drying can vary from still air drying at
instructions. ambient temperature to as high as 140F [60C] with air
25.5 AgitationShake the film horizontally and vertically, circulated by a fan. Film manufacturers should again be
ideally for a few seconds each minute during development. contacted for recommended drying conditions. Take precaution
This will help film develop evenly. to tighten film on hangers, so that it cannot touch in the dryer.

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Too hot a drying temperature at low humidity can result in ferred, since occasional staining and fading of the image is
uneven drying and should be avoided. caused by certain adhesives used in the manufacture of
envelopes (see ANSI PH1.53).
26. Testing Developer
26.1 It is desirable to monitor the activity of the radio- 30. Records
graphic developing solution. This can be done by periodic 30.1 It is recommended that an inspection log (a log may
development of film strips exposed under carefully controlled consist of a card file, punched card system, a book, or other
conditions, to a graded series of radiation intensities or time, or record) constituting a record of each job performed, be
by using a commercially available strip carefully controlled for maintained. This record should comprise, initially, a job
film speed and latent image fading. number (which should appear also on the films), the identifi-
cation of the parts, material or area radiographed, the date the
27. Viewing Radiographs films are exposed, and a complete record of the radiographic
27.1 Guide E 1390 provides detailed information on re- procedure, in sufficient detail so that any radiographic tech-
quirements for illuminators. The following sections provide niques may be duplicated readily. If calibration data, or other
general information to be considered for use of illuminators. records such as card files or procedures, are used to determine
27.2 TransmissionThe illuminator must provide light of the procedure, the log need refer only to the appropriate data or
an intensity that will illuminate the average density areas of the other record. Subsequently, the interpreters findings and
radiographs without glare and it must diffuse the light evenly disposition (acceptance or rejection), if any, and his initials,
over the viewing area. Commercial fluorescent illuminators are should also be entered for each job.
satisfactory for radiographs of moderate density; however, high
light intensity illuminators are available for densities up to 3.5 31. Reports
or 4.0. Masks should be available to exclude any extraneous 31.1 When written reports of radiographic examinations are
light from the eyes of the viewer when viewing radiographs required, they should include the following, plus such other
smaller than the viewing port or to cover low-density areas. items as may be agreed upon:
27.3 ReflectionRadiographs on a translucent or opaque 31.1.1 Identification of parts, material, or area.
backing may be viewed by reflected light. It is recommended 31.1.2 Radiographic job number.
that the radiograph be viewed under diffuse lighting conditions 31.1.3 Findings and disposition, if any. This information can
to prevent excess glare. Optical magnification can be used in be obtained directly from the log.
certain instances to enhance the interpretation of the image.
32. Identification of Completed Work
28. Viewing Room 32.1 Whenever radiography is an inspective (rather than
28.1 Subdued lighting, rather than total darkness, is prefer- investigative) operation whereby material is accepted or re-
able in the viewing room. The brightness of the surroundings jected, all parts and material that have been accepted should be
should be about the same as the area of interest in the marked permanently, if possible, with a characteristic identi-
radiograph. Room illumination must be so arranged that there fying symbol which will indicate to subsequent or final
are no reflections from the surface of the film under examina- examiners the fact of radiographic acceptance.
tion. 32.2 Whenever possible, the completed radiographs should
be kept on file for reference. The custody of radiographs and
29. Storage of Processed Radiographs the length of time they are preserved should be agreed upon
29.1 Guide E 1254 provides detailed information on con- between the contracting parties.
trols and maintenance for storage of radiographs and unex-
posed film. The following sections provide general information 33. Keywords
for storage of radiographs. 33.1 exposure calculations; film system; gamma-ray; image
29.2 Envelopes having an edge seam, rather than a center quality indicator (IQI); radiograph; radiographic examination;
seam, and joined with a nonhygroscopic adhesive, are pre- radiographic quality level; technique file; X-ray

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APPENDIX

(Nonmandatory Information)

X1. USE OF FLUORESCENT SCREENS

X1.1 DescriptionFluorescent intensifying screens have a uniformity, and layer thickness, is minimized by using screens
cardboard or plastic support coated with a uniform layer of having small, evenly spaced crystals in a thin crystalline layer.
inorganic phosphor (crystalline substance). The support and Fluorescent screens are highly sensitive to longer wavelength
phosphor are held together by a radiotransparent binding scattered radiation. Consequently, to maximize contrast when
material. Fluorescent screens derive their name from the fact this non-image forming radiation is excessive, fluorometallic
that their phosphor crystals fluoresce (emit visible light) intensifying screens or fluorescent screens backed by lead
when struck by X or gamma radiation. Some phosphors like screens of appropriate thickness are recommended. Screen
calcium tungstate (CaWO4) give off blue light while others technology has seen significant advances in recent years, and
known as rare earth emit light green. todays fluorescent screens have smaller crystal size, more
uniform crystal packing, and reduced phosphor thickness. This
X1.2 Purpose and Film TypesFluorescent screen expo- translates into greater screen/film speed with reduced unsharp-
sures are usually much shorter than those made without screens ness and mottle. These improvements can represent some
or with lead intensifying screens, because radiographic films meaningful benefits for industrial radiography, as indicated by
generally are more responsive to visible light than to direct the three examples as follows:
X-radiation, gamma radiation, and electrons.
X1.3.1 Reduced Exposure (Increased Productivity)There
X1.2.1 Films fall into one of two categories: non-screen
are instances when prohibitively long exposure times make
type film having moderate light response, and screen type film
conventional radiography impractical. An example is the in-
specifically sensitized to have a very high blue or green light
spection of thick, high atomic number materials with low curie
response. Fluorescent screens can reduce conventional expo-
isotopes. Depending on many variables, exposure time may be
sures by as much as 150 times, depending on film type.
reduced by factors ranging from 23 to 1053 when the
X1.3 Image Quality and UseThe image quality associ- appropriate fluorescent screen/film combination is used.
ated with fluorescent screen exposures is a function of sharp- X1.3.2 Improved Safety Conditions (Field Sites)Because
ness, mottle, and contrast. Screen sharpness depends on phos- fluorescent screens provide reduced exposure, the length of
phor crystal size, thickness of the crystal layer, and the time that non-radiation workers must evacuate a radiographic
reflective base coating. Each crystal emits light relative to its inspection site can be reduced significantly.
size and in all directions thus producing a relative degree of X1.3.3 Extended Equipment CapabilityUtilizing the
image unsharpness. To minimize this unsharpness, screen to speed advantage of fluorescent screens by translating it into
film contact should be as intimate as possible. Mottle adversely reduced energy level. An example is that a 150 kV X-ray tube
affects image quality in two ways. First, a quantum mottle is may do the job of a 300 kV tube, or that iridium 192 may be
dependent upon the amount of X or gamma radiation actually used in applications normally requiring cobalt 60. It is possible
absorbed by the fluorescent screen, that is, faster screen/film for overall image quality to be better at the lower kV with
systems lead to greater mottle and poorer image quality. A fluorescent screens than at a higher energy level using lead
structural mottle, which is a function of crystal size, crystal screens.

BIBLIOGRAPHY ON INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY

For conciseness, this bibliography has been limited to books and specifically to books in English published after 1950.

(1) Clark, G. L., Applied X-Rays, 4th ed., McGraw Hill Book Co., Inc., (8) Weyl, C., and Warren, S. R., Radiologic Physics, 2nd ed., Charles
New York, 1955. C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, 1951.
(2) Clauser, H. R., Practical Radiography for Industry, Reinhold (9) Wilshire, W. J. (Editor), A Further Handbook of Industrial Radi-
Publishing Corp., New York, 1952. ology, Edward Arnold and Company, London, 1957.
(3) Hogarth, C. A., and Blitz, J. (Editors), Techniques of Nondestructive (10) McGonnagle, W. J., Nondestructive Testing, McGraw Hill Book
Testing, Butte Worth and Co., Ltd., London, 1960. Co., Inc., New York, 1961.
(4) McMaster, R. C. (Editor), Nondestructive Testing Handbook, The
(11) Handbook on Radiography, Revised edition, Atomic Energy of
Ronald Press, New York, 1960.
Canada Ltd. Ottawa, Ont., 1950.
(5) Morgan, R. H., and Corrigan, K. E. (Editors), Handbook of
Radiology, The Year Book Publishers, Inc., Chicago, 1955. (12) Papers on Radiography, ASTM STP 96, ASTM, 1950.
(6) Reed, M. E., Cobalt-60 Radiography in Industry, Tracer-lab, Inc., (13) Symposium on the Role of Nondestructive Testing in the Economics
Boston, 1954. of Production, ASTM STP 112, ASTM, 1951.
(7) Robertson, J. K., Radiology Physics, 3rd ed., D. Van Nostrand (14) Radioisotope Technique, Vol II, H. M. Stationery Office, London,
Company, New York, 1956. 1952.

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(15) Symposium on Nondestructive Testing, ASTM STP 145, ASTM, (18) Radiography in Modern Industry (3rd edition), Eastman Kodak
1953. Co., Rochester, NY, 1969.
(16) Memorandum on Gamma-Ray Sources for Radiography, Revised (19) Symposium on Nondestructive Tests in the Field of Nuclear Energy,
edition, Institute of Physics, London, 1954. ASTM STP 223, ASTM, 1958.
(17) Papers on Nondestructive Testing, see Proceedings, ASTM, Vol 54, (20) Radiographers Reference (3rd edition), E. I. du Pont de Nemours
1954. & Co., Inc., Wilmington, DE, 1974 (or latest revision).

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