Mos
Mos
Mos
MUZAFFARPUR
List of Experiments
Experiment 1
TENSION TEST
Objective: To study the behavior of the given material under tensile load and to
determine the following:
Apparatus Required:
Universal Testing machine, Dial gauge, Vernier caliper and scale.
Theory:
In engineering, tension test is widely used to provide basic design information on the
strength of the materials. In the tension test a specimen is subjected to a continually
increasing uniaxial tensile force while simultaneous observations are made of the
elongation of the specimen. A stress-strain curve is plotted from the load-elongation
measurements.
The parameters which are used to describe the stress-strain curve of a
material are the tensile strength, yield strength or yield point, percent elongation and
reduction of area. The first two are strength parameters; the last two indicate
ductility.
1
Observations
2
Final Area (A f) = π x df = ………………mm2
4
2
Definitions:
Limit of proportionality (A): It is the limiting value of the stress up to which
stress is proportional to strain.
Elastic limit: This is the limiting value of stress up to which if the material is
stressed and then released (unloaded), Strain disappears completely and the original
length is regained.
Tabular Column
Young’s
Sl. Load in Extension (δl ) Stress in
Load in N 2 Strain modulus
No. KN in mm N/mm N/mm2
1
2
3
4
5
6
E = stress
7
strain
8
9
10
11 Result
12 from
13 the graph
14
15
Calculations
Stress = Load = P=…………….N/mm2
Area Ai
Strain = Change in length
=…………..
Original Length
Young‟s modulus = Stress = ………N/mm2 (obtained from the graph) Strain
Working stress = yield stress =………. N/mm2
Factor of Safety.
Upper Yield Point (B): This is the stress at which, the load starts reducing and the
extension increases. This phenomenon is called yielding of material.
Lower Yield Point (C): At this stage the stress remains same but strain increases
for some time.
Ultimate Stress (D): This is the maximum stress the material can resist. At this
stage cross sectional area at a particular section starts reducing very fast (fig.1). This
is called neck formation.
Breaking Point (E): The stress at which finally the specimen fails is called breaking
point.
Hooks law: Within the elastic limit, the stress is proportional to the strain for an
Isentropic material.
4
A - Elastic Limit
B - Upper Yield Stress
C - Lower Yield Stress
D -Ultimate Stress
E -Breaking Stress
Breaking strength = Breaking load = pB= ……………… N/mm2
Final Area Af
lg = gauge length i.e. length of the specimen on which we want to determine the
mechanical properties.
L= Total length of the specimen
5
Proof Resilience: It is defined as the "partial strain energy stored in the specimen
from zero upto elasti.c point". Graphically, it is the area bounded below the graph
from zero upto elastic point. Hence proof resilience=Approximately the Triangular
area from zero upto elastic point (Fig: 1),
6
Procedure
The original dimensions of the specimen like original diameter, gauge length
etc. is to be measured.
The specimen is mounted on the Universal Testing machine between the fixed
and movable jaws.
The load range in the machine is adjusted to its maximum capacity (160
tonnes)
The dial gauge is mounted on the machine at the appropriate positions and
adjusted to zero.
The machine is switched on and the tensile load is applied gradually.
For every 5 KN of load, the readings of dial gauge is noted and tabulated.
Remove the dial gauge at slightly below the expected load at yield point.
Record the load at yield point, at the yield point the pointer on load scale will
remain stationary for small interval of time and blue needle will come back by
2 or 3 divisions that point is lower yield point.
The specimen is loaded continuously up to the ultimate load (red needle will
stops) where there is formation of cup and cone at neck in the specimen,
which is to be noted.
With further loading the specimen breaks, and breaking load is noted.
The specimen is removed and final dimensions are measured.
1. Working stress =
2. Young‟s Modulus of specimen =
3. Yield stress =
4. Ultimate stress =
5. Breaking stress =
6. % reduction in Area =
7. % Elongation=
7
Experiment 2
COMPRESSION TEST
Objective: To study the behavior of the given material under Compressive load and
to determine the following:
Modulus of elasticity
Maximum Compressive strength or ultimate stress
Percentage Decrease in length
Percentage Increase in area
Principle: Ductile materials attain a Bulge or a Barrel shape after reaching the
maximum compression load. No fracture takes place and there is change in cross-
section and compression value remains the same on reaching the maximum load. For
brittle materials, there will be no change in the cross-sections or height of the
specimen due to the compression load. On reaching the maximum compression load,
the specimen suddenly fractures as shown in the Fig.
Apparatus Required:
Universal Testing machine, Dial gauge, Vernier caliper and scale.
Theory:
The compression test is just opposite to tension test, with regard to direction.
However, there are certain practical difficulties which may induce error in this test.
They are:
Difficulty in applying truly axial load.
8
There is always a tendency of the specimen to bend in addition to Contraction. To
avoid these errors, usually the specimen for this test shall be short inlength (not
more than 2 time the diameter)
Observations
1. Least count of dial gauge = 0.01mm.
2. Specimen
Material = …………………
= ………….. …..
3. Initial length (li) mm
4. Initial diameter = ………….. …..
(di ) mm
5. Original C/S Area (Ai ) =πxd 2 =………………….mm2
4
Tabular Column:
1
2
3
4
E = stress
5 strain
6
7
8
9 Result
10 from
the graph
11
12
13
14
15
9
Calculations
10
Graph: Stress v/s Strain
11
Procedure
The original dimensions of the specimen like original dia., gauge length etc. is
to be measured.
The specimen is mounted on the Universal Testing machine between the fixed
and movable jaws.
The load range in the machine is adjusted to its maximum capacity (300
tonnes)
The dial gauge is mounted on the machine at the appropriate positions and
adjusted to zero.
The machine is switched on and the compressive load is applied gradually.
For every 10 KN of load, the readings of dial gauge is noted and tabulated.
Remove the dial gauge at slightly below the expected load at yield point.
Record the load at yield point, at the yield point the pointer on load scale will
remain stationary for small interval of time and blue needle will come back by
1 or 2 divisions that point is lower yield point.
The specimen is loaded continuously up to the ultimate load (red needle will
stops) which is to be noted.
The specimen is removed and final dimensions are measured.
12
Experiment 3
SHEAR TEST
AIM: To determine the shear strength of the given standard specimen under single
and double shear.
Specimen THEORY:
A shear stress acts parallel to a C/S plane whereas tensile and compressive stresses
act at normal to the C/S plane. For direct shear test of metals, a bar is usually
sheared in the same device that changes the position of the specimen while the
remaining position is subject to load by suitable dies.
PROCEDURE:
OBSERVATIONS
13
TABULATION:
Sl.No.
Type of Load(P) Cross Sectional Shear Stress
Area 2
CALCULATIONS:
RESULTS:
14
Experiment 4
BENDING TEST
Objective: To Conduct bending test for the given specimen and to determine the
following:
Modulus of elasticity
Modulus of Rupture or flexure modulus (maximum bending stress at failure
using bending equation).
Principle
A Bending test may be performed on actual beam cross-section by using the three
point loading system. The bending fixture is supported on the platform of the
hydraulic cylinder of the universal testing machine. The loading knife edge is held in
the middle crosshead. At a particular load, the deflection at the centre of the beam is
determined by using a dial gauge.
Apparatus Required:
Universal Testing machine, Dial gauge, Vernier caliper and scale.
Theory:
Application of a simple concentrated load at centre in the case of Bending associated
with shear. Application of two concentrated loads will lead to pure bending without
shear. Beams are usually subjected to bending moment and shearing forces which
vary from section to section. Bending moment at a section in a beam is the moment
that is trying to bend it and is obtained as the algebraic sum of the moments about
the section of all the forces acting on the beam either to the left or to the right of the
section. Due to the bending moment, beam sags or hogs as shown below;
15
Tabular Column
4
5
10
11
Observations
Material =……………….
16
Calculations
2
Bending Stress,b= M y =………………N / mm
I
y = h / 2 =………….. mm
Bending equation: M = b = E
I y R
17
Procedure:
Modulus of Rupture =
Modulus of elasticity =
18
CALCULATIONS:
Modulus of Rigidity C = 32 l T
πD4 θ
OBSERVATIONS:
TABULAR COLUMN:
10
19
Experiment 5
TORSION TEST
AIM: To determine the modulus of rigidity and torsional shear stresses developed
PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the Dia of the test piece at three different places and note the Average
dia.( D)
3. Fix the specimen in the chucks and adjust the load range real and start the
motors
20
CALCULATIONS:
Modulus of Rigidity C = 32 l T
πD4 θ
OBSERVATIONS:
TABULAR COLUMN:
10
RESULTS:
21
Experiment 6
IZOD IMPACT TEST
Objective: To determine the Impact strength (Specific impact factor) through Izod
test.
Principle: Static tests are not satisfactory in determining the resistance to shock or
impact loads such as automobile parts are subjected to shock loads, and in the
impact test a notched specimen of the material is fractured by a single blow from a
heavy hammer, the energy required being a measure of the resistance to impact.
Theory
Notch Toughness: The high resistance of the material to fracture under suddenly
applied loads at any Stress raiser such as notch.
Toughness: The ability of the material to absorb energy and deform plastically
before fracture. It is usually measured by the energy absorbed in a notched impact
test like Charpy and Izod tests. The area under the stress -strain curve in a tensile
test is also a measure of toughness and as such is proportional to the combined
effects of tensile strength and ductility.
The Izod impact energy (I) i.e, the energy required to break the specimen is
obtained directly from the test. The depth below the notch and the breadth of the
specimen is measured (i.e d and b). The effective cross-sectional area below the
notch is obtained (A=bd mm2) hence, specific Impact factor=If=I/A Joules /mm2
22
Fig: Izod Impact testing equipment
23
Tabular Column
1. M.S 1
2. M.S 2
Specification
Procedure
1. Fix the charpy striker in its respective position; place the charpy test specimen
on supports.
2. Align the centre at the specimen notch with respect to centre of support by
means of setting gauge.
3. Touch the striker to the test specimen and adjust the indicating pointer to 170J.
4. Lift the pendulum till it gets latched in its position at 900 from its vertical axis.
5. Allow the pendulum to swing freely and break the specimen.
6. After rupture apply the break to the pendulum slowly by operating break lever.
7. Note down the reading at observed energy directly on the dial as indicated by
the indicating pointer.
8. Before proceeding for next test, remove the broken piece of the tested
specimen and bring indicating pointer, striker to its original position at 170J.
24
Experiment 7
CHARPY TEST
The Charpy Impact Test is similar in principle to the Izod, but the notched specimen
is supported at each end as a beam and struck by the hammer in the centre.
Theory
Specification
25
Fig: Charpy impact testing equipment
26
Tabular Column
1. M.S 1
2. M.S 2
Procedure
1. Fix the charpy striker in its respective position; place the charpy test specimen
on supports.
2. Align the centre at the specimen notch with respect to centre of support by
means of setting gauge.
3. Touch the striker to the test specimen and adjust the indicating pointer to
300J.
4. Lift the pendulum till it gets latched in its position at 1400 from its vertical axis.
5. Allow the pendulum to swing freely and break the specimen.
6. After rupture apply the break to the pendulum slowly by operating break lever.
7. Note down the reading at observed energy directly on the dial as indicated by
the indicating pointer.
8. Before proceeding for next test, remove the broken piece of the tested
specimen and bring indicating pointer, striker to its original position at 300J.
27
Experiment 8
Theory:
Hardness of a material is generally defined as Resistance to the permanent
indentation under static and dynamic load. When a material is required to use under
direct static or dynamic loads, only indentation hardness test will be useful to find out
resistance to indentation.
Rockwell test is developed by the Wilson instrument co U.S.A in 1920. This test
is an indentation test used for smaller specimens and harder materials. In this test
indenter is forced into the surface of a test piece in two operations, measuring the
permanent increase in depth of an indentation from the depth increased from the
depth reached under a datum load due to an additional load.
Measurement of indentation is made after removing the additional load.
Indenter used is the cone having an angle of 120 degrees made of black diamond.
28
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST MACHINE
29
Observation
C (Black
Hard Metals Diamond cone 150
graduations)
B (Red
Soft Metals Ball (1/16”) 100
graduations )
Tabular Column
Diamond
01 Hardened steel
cone
Ball
Mild steel
02 (1/16”)
Ball
03 Brass
(1/16”)
Ball
04 Copper
(1/16”)
Ball
05 Aluminium
(1/16”)
30
Specification:
Rockwell hardness tester gives the direct reading of hardness number on a
dial provided with the machine. The specimen may be cylinder, cube, thick or
thin metallic sheets.
Specifications are as follows.
1. Ability to determine hardness up to = 100 RHN
2. Maximum application of load = 150 Kgf
3. Method of load application = Lever type
4. least measuring hardness number= 1 RHN
Procedure:
1. Keep the loading and unloading lever at position “A” which is unloading position.
2. Select the suitable indentor & weights according to the scale.
3. Place the specimen on testing table anvil.
4. Turn the hand wheel to raise a job until it makes contact with indentor &
continue turning till the longer pointer at the dial gauge makes 2 ½ rotations.
Then it stops at zero continue turning slowly till the small pointer reaches the
red spot at „3‟, this is automatic zero setting dial gauge.
5. Turn the lever position „A‟ to „B‟ i.e. from unloading to loading position. So
that the total load will act.
6. When the longer pointer of the dial gauge reaches steady position, take back
the lever to the unloading position „A‟. [Avoid sudden release at the lever]
7. Now note down the reading in the last dial indicator by notifying the large
pointer
8. Turn back the hand wheel and remove the job.
9. Similarly repeat the step from 1-9 for different trials and for different metals.
2. Mild steel =
3. Brass =
4. Copper =
5. Aluminium =
31
Experiment 9
Principle: Brinell hardness number (BHN) is obtained by the ratio of the calculated
load and the spherical area of the Indentation or Impression made on the specimen
by the corresponding Indentor Ball.
Specification
In Brinell hardness test, a steel ball of diameter (D) is forced under a load on to a
surface of test specimen. Mean diameter (d) of indentation is measured after the
removal of the load (P).
32
BRINELL HARDNESS TESTING MACHINE
33
Observation
Total
Type of
load(P) Suitable for
Indentor
Kg-F
Tabular Column
Diameter of
indenter Total
Sr.No Specimen Diameter(D) load(P) Indentation(d) Average BHN
in mm dia
In mm Kg-F
1 2 3
01 Mild steel
02 Brass
03 Copper
04 Aluminium
34
Calculations
2P
d=MSR+ (CVSD×LC)
Procedure
1. Keep the loading and unloading lever at position “A” which is unloading
position.
2. Select the suitable indentor & weights according to the scale.
3. Place the specimen on testing table anvil.
4. Turn the hand wheel to raise a job until it makes contact with indenter &
continue turning till the longer pointer at the dial gauge makes 2 ½ rotations.
Then it stops at zero continue turning slowly till the small pointer reaches the
red spot at „3‟, this is automatic zero setting dial gauge.
5. Turn the lever position „A‟ to „B‟ i.e. from unloading to loading position. So
that the total load will act.
6. When the longer pointer of the dial gauge reaches steady position, take back the
lever to the unloading position „A‟. [Avoid sudden release at the lever]
7. Remove the job from the platform and note down the diameter of the
indentation using Brinell microscope.
8. Using appropriate formula calculate BHN.
9. Similarly repeat the step from 1-8 for different trials and for different metals.
35
Results & Conclusion: Brinell hardness number of given specimen is
1. Mild steel =
2. Brass =
3. Copper =
4. Aluminium =
Conclusion: Based on BHN for Mild Steel, the Relation between the tensile
strength and Hardness Number is given as follows,
Tensile Strength of Mild Steel = K*BHN for MS
Where K= constan between 3.4 to 3.9 for types of steel.
36
Experiment 10
Principle: The required load as calculated by P/D2 ratio is applied on the specimen
for a standard time of 8-10 Sec‟s and BHN is calculated by the ratio of load and the
spherical area of indentation. The diameter of the indentation is measured on the
focusing screen of the machine.
Practical Importance :
Same as in Experiment NO.8 (i.e., Rockwell Hardness Test).
Theory:
Very Hard materials (e.g. Mild steel, case hardened steel, etc,) can be tested by the
Vicker's method. If the moderately hard materials like Brass, Copper and Aluminium
are tested in this machine, the indentor makes a deep impression. Hence, a proper
indentation cannot be made on the specimen and a correct value of the hardness
cannot be obtained for these materials by V. H. Test.
This test is similar to Brinell hardness test similar relationship and eliminates most of
the errors. A regular pyramid having a square base and smoothened off diamond
point is pressed in the material to be tested under a load „F‟. The produced
impression is projected onto a focusing screen and the diagonals of the impression
are measured by means of the measuring equipment.
Due to small impressions, it is very suitable for testing polished and hardened
material surfaces. This test is rapid, accurate.
37
VICKER'S HARDNESS TESTING MACHINE
38
Observation
Type of indenter = Diamond cone
Tabular column
Calculations
1.854P
Vicker‟s Hardness Number (VHN) =
l2
Where,
P= Load applied in Kg
l= Average length of the diagonal L in mm
Specification
39
Procedure:
1. Mild steel =
40