COURSE: Educational Measurement and Evaluation (6507)

ASSIGNMENT NO 2

QNO1: Describe the different projective methods of measurements. Provide examples for

the explanation of each method separately.

ANS: Projective techniques or tests are one of the most frequently used and important tests in

clinical work. They largely originated within a clinical setting and have retained important tools

for the clinician. Some have evolved from therapeutic procedures such as art therapy employed

with psychiatric patients.

Though projective techniques have been used since long they gained their popularity from an

article written by L. K. Frank titled “Projective Methods for the Study of Personality.” Projective

methodology’s greatest boon came in 1921 with a report by Herman Rorschach in which he

described a technique for determining modes of behaviour from an individual’s verbal responses

to a set of 10 inkblots.

Today, the literature on projective techniques is vast, running over 4,000 references on

Rorschach alone. Projective techniques are being used intensively in all areas of applied

psychology ranging from hospitals and clinics to personnel selection or vocational guidance.

Projective techniques refer to a group of techniques used for studying both intellectual and non-

intellectual aspects of personality. In these tests, an individual is presented with a relatively

unstructured or ambiguous task like a picture, inkblot or incomplete sentence which permits a

wide variety of interpretations by the subject.

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The basic assumption underlying projective tests is that individual’s interpretation of the task

will project his characteristic mode of responses, his personal motives, emotions and desires and

thus enable the examiner to understand more subtle aspects of his personality.

There are a wide variety of projective techniques. The two most important representative tests of

projective techniques are the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test. Some

other well-known projective tests include the word-association or free-association test and the

sentence completion tests.

(a) The Rorschach Inkblot Test:

Was developed by Herman Rorschach in 1921 in his Monograph “Psychodiagnostik.” He died in

the same year. His associates Emil Oberholzer, Waller Morgenthaler and George Roemer played

an important role in popularising this test.

Today Rorschach is one of the most frequently used, very popular, widely criticised and

extensively researched tests. Various innovations in this test have led to the development of

multiple systems of test administration, scoring and interpretation.

The Rorschach test consists of 10 cards having bilateral symmetrical inkblots. Half of the cards

are black and while and half are coloured. The cards are presented to subjects in a definite

sequence.

The scoring of the test is highly subjective. Several scoring categories for Rorschach test have

been developed but the most commonly scored categories are location (i.e. the area of the blot

which has been perceived by the subject on the basis of live response), determinant (i.e. charac-
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teristic of the inkblot as perceived by the subject), content (what is actually seen by the subject),

original or popular (this category tells us whether subject’s responses are common or original).

Rorschach test has received mixed reception. Some have regarded it as an X-ray of personality,

an indispensable tool for diagnostic purpose, whereas others have regarded its use as unethical.

Researchers have consistently presented a poor picture of Rorschach whereas; on the other hand

clinicians have been using this test with increasing frequency.

(b) The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT):

The only other projective technique that has approached the Rorschach method in amount of use

and volume of research is the TAT which was developed by C. D. Morgan and Henry A. Murray

in 1935 as a method to explore unconscious thoughts and fantasies.

The TAT test consists of 30 pictures and a blank card. The pictures have been selected and

marked in such a way that there are four sets of 20 cards each, one for boys, one for girls, one for

males and one for females over 14 years. The testing process is divided into two sessions and for

each of these it is suggested that no more than 10 TAT cards be administered with at least one

day intervening between the two sessions.

More recently, practical considerations have led to reduction in the number of cards

administered. Most testers now present the subject with 8 to 12 cards and use only a single

session. The cards are presented individually and the respondent is instructed to provide a story

about the picture that describes the depicted scene, what led up to it, what the characters in the

picture are thinking and what the outcome will be.

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Although typically administered as an oral test in clinical situations, the TAT may also be

administered in writing and as a group test.

The TAT test, like the Rorschach test; also has multiple scoring systems. The three well-known

and popular TAT scoring systems are as follows:

(a) Murray’s scoring system (Non-quantitative)

(b) McClelland’s system (quantitative) and

(c) Eron’s system (quantitative).

Since its original publication, many modifications of the original TAT test have been devised.

One such modification is the Children’s Appreciation Test (CAT).

(c) The Word Association Test:

Was originally known as the free- association test and was first developed systematically by Carl

Jung. Later on the, Kent and Rosanoff used it for psychiatric screening. There have been many

versions of the word association test. Jung’s word association test consisted of 100 words. In

1968, Rapaport and his associates developed a word-association test consisting of a list of 60

words. Kent and Rosanoff developed a word-association test consisting of 100 words to

differentiate between mentally ill and normal persons.

In the word-association test, the subject is told that the examiner would speak a series of words,

one word at a time, and he/she (the subject) should immediately say the first word which comes

to his mind and that there are no right or wrong answers.

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The examiner then records the reply to each word spoken by him, the reaction time and any

unusual speech or behaviour manifestations which might accompany a given response. The

subjects give clues for evaluating the individual’s personality.

(d) Sentence Completion Test:

In this test, the individual is presented with a series of incomplete sentences, generally open at

the end, to be completed by him in one or more words. They resemble the word-association test.

However, sentence completion test is regarded as superior to word association test because the

subject may respond with more than one word, greater flexibility and variety of responses is

possible and more areas of personality and experience may be tapped.

QNO2: What is meant by anxiety. As a teacher what measures you suggest to reduce the

test anxiety of students.

ANS: The American Psychological Association (APA) defines anxiety as "an emotion

characterized by feelings of tension, worried thoughts and physical changes like increased blood

pressure."

Knowing the difference between normal feelings of anxiety and an anxiety disorder requiring

medical attention can help a person identify and treat the condition.

In this article, we look at the differences between anxiety and anxiety disorder, the different

types of anxiety, and the available treatment options.

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When an individual faces potentially harmful or worrying triggers, feelings of anxiety are not

only normal but necessary for survival.

Since the earliest days of humanity, the approach of predators and incoming danger sets off

alarms in the body and allows evasive action. These alarms become noticeable in the form of a

raised heartbeat, sweating, and increased sensitivity to surroundings.

The danger causes a rush of adrenalin, a hormone and chemical messenger in the brain, which in

turn triggers these anxious reactions in a process called the "fight-or-flight' response. This

prepares humans to physically confront or flee any potential threats to safety.

For many people, running from larger animals and imminent danger is a less pressing concern

than it would have been for early humans. Anxieties now revolve around work, money, family

life, health, and other crucial issues that demand a person's attention without necessarily

requiring the 'fight-or-flight' reaction.

The nervous feeling before an important life event or during a difficult situation is a natural echo

of the original 'fight-or-flight' reaction. It can still be essential to survival – anxiety about being

hit by a car when crossing the street, for example, means that a person will instinctively look

both ways to avoid danger.

Anxiety disorders

The duration or severity of an anxious feeling can sometimes be out of proportion to the original

trigger, or stressor. Physical symptoms, such as increased blood pressure and nausea, may also

develop. These responses move beyond anxiety into an anxiety disorder.

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1. Ask students where their fear is coming from

Having a better understanding of why a student is experiencing test anxiety can be hugely

helpful in figuring out the best way to manage it. Some students will be able to articulate their

feelings better than others, but regardless, asking the question will provide valuable clues as to

what will help calm a student down.

2. Keep things in perspective

In the grand scheme of things, no single test is going to define a student’s academic career, or

have that significant of an impact on their future. After all, it’s just one test. As an adult, it’s

probably much easier for you to understand this perspective than it is for your students—you’ve

had more experience with both failure and success, realize they both happen, and know that no

matter what, the world keeps turning. Share this perspective with your students regularly,

offering gentle reminders that every test is just a test, and no test defines how smart, successful,

or worthy they are.

3. Prioritize classroom preparation efforts

Studying and preparing beforehand are two things that students really do have control over when

it comes to testing, and they can bring a lot of confidence and peace of mind. Make sure you go

in to testing season with a well-thought-out review plan to give your students plenty of chances

to brush up on knowledge and skills they’ll be assessed on. It’s also very helpful to get your

students comfortable with the type of test environment they’ll experience. If tests will be taken

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online, make sure your students are familiar with the kind of devices they’ll use and

any technology-enhanced item types they’ll encounter. Consider offering extra review

opportunities outside of class as well—bagel breakfasts, after-school snack sessions, or open

office hours during prep periods are all low-pressure options that anxious students looking for

some additional practice will appreciate.

4. Teach effective test-taking strategies

Test taking is a skill in and of itself. Help calm anxious students’ nerves by making sure they are

familiar with and have confidence in test-taking skills as well as the actual content they’re being

tested on. Some of these best practices include reading questions completely before answering

them (especially for tricky technology-enhanced item types), skipping over questions that

students don’t know in order to manage time, and reviewing answers as time allows.

5. Focus on the positives

Students struggling with test anxiety are wrapped up in patterns of negative thinking when it

comes to tests. They’re focusing on all of the mistakes they could make, everything that could go

wrong, and how catastrophic a bad score could be. Shift their focus by helping them reflect on

some positive past experiences. Ask them to tell you (or journal) about a test that they did well

on. What did they do leading up to that test? How did they feel about it before and after? Getting

a student to stop and remember their own abilities can go a long way toward breaking the

negativity cycle—and calm nerves in the process.

6. Empower students with simple strategies to reduce anxiety

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For many students with test anxiety, the truly difficult moments don’t hit until they’ve sat down

to take their test. Basic anxiety-reducing techniques can be a big help for these students.

Encourage your learners to practice simple deep breathing exercises, use positive self-talk and

mantras, or do seated stretches to release tension once the test is underway.

7. Help students create a study schedule

Some students who struggle with test anxiety spend countless hours studying, reviewing, and

cramming in frantic efforts to get ready for exams. While preparation is certainly key, it’s

important to be intentional about how to go about it. Try helping your students create study

schedules to follow at home. Encourage them to block out reasonable blocks of time during their

week, taking in to account other homework, extracurricular activities, and time for fun and

relaxation. Having a schedule to follow can help kids manage stress, feel confident in their

preparation efforts, and make more productive use of their study time.

QNO3: Write down learning outcomes for any unit of science for 9th class and develop an

Essay type test items with rubric, 5 multiple choice questions and 5 short questions for

written learning outcomes.

ANS:

QNO4: Describe the measures of relationship. Also elaborate how these measures can be

utilized in the interpretation of test results? Provide example where necessary.

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ANS: The measure of relationship are those statistical measures that we use in context of

univariate population i.e., the population consisting of measurement of only one variable. But if

we have the data on two variables, we are said to have a bivariate population and if the data

happen to be on more than two variables, the population is known as multivariate population. If

for every measurement of a variable, X, we have corresponding value of a second variable, Y,

the resulting pairs of values are called a bivariate population. In addition, we may also have a

corresponding value of the third variable, Z, or the forth variable, W, and so on, the resulting

pairs of values are called a multivariate population. In case of bivariate or multivariate

populations, we often wish to know the relation of the two and/or more variables in the data to

one another. We may like to know, for example, whether the number of hours students devote

for studies is somehow related to their family income, to age, to sex or to similar other factor.

There are several methods of determining the relationship between variables, but no method can

tell us for certain that a correlation is indicative of causal relationship.

In a study of relationships between variables, we can often (but not always) distinguish between

two types of variables:

The response variable (also called the dependent variable) is the variable you are studying.

An explanatory variable (also called the independent variable) is any variable that you measure

that may be affecting the level of the response variable. An explanatory variable is also

commonly termed a factor in an experimental study, or a risk factor in an epidemiological study

In many studies the distinction between response and explanatory variables is quite clear. Let's

take as an example an epidemiological study of the disease cysticercosis in a

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rural population. The aim is to determine if there is a relationship between anyone having

cysticercosis in a household, and the keeping of pigs in the compound. Here the explanatory

variable (risk factor) is whether or not pigs are kept, and the response variable is infection status.

But sometimes this distinction cannot be made - for example you might want to assess the

relationship between eye colour to hair color. It is hard to argue that eye colour affects hair

colour, or vice versa, although the two may be associated in some way.

Ratios for summarizing relationships

Epidemiologists often need to summarize relationships between nominal variables, because both

the response and explanatory variables they study are usually nominal, and often binary - for

example whether an individual has a disease or not, and whether that person smokes or not.

Hence will use their terminology for the methods we examine - but remember that the same

designs can be (and are being) used in other disciplines. The response variable is commonly

either a measure of disease frequency, or a measure of mortality. The ratios used are either a risk

ratio, an odds ratio, or a rate ratio. For some study designs, only one type of ratio is appropriate

QNO5 (a): Describe the purposes and methods of assigning grades.

ANS: The first step in sound classroom assessment practices associated with grading is to ensure

that grades are meaningful. In determining students’ grades, teachers typically merge scores from

major exams, compositions, quizzes, projects, and reports, along with evidence from homework,

punctuality in turning in assignments, class participation, work habits, and effort. Computerized

grading programs help teachers apply different weights to each of these categories (Guskey,

2002) that then are combined in idiosyncratic ways (McMillan, 2001; McMillan, Myran, &
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Workman, 2002). The result often is a grade that is impossible to interpret accurately or

meaningfully (Brookhart & Nitko, 2008; Cross & Frary, 1996). To make grades more

meaningful, we need to address both the purpose of grades and the format used to report them.

Purpose and criteria

The purpose of grading is to describe how well students have achieved the learning objectives or

goals established for a class or course of study. Grades should reflect students’ performance on

specific learning criteria. Establishing clearly articulated criteria for grades makes the grading

process more fair and equitable. Unfortunately, different teachers often use widely varying

criteria in determining students’ grades, and students often aren’t well-informed about those

criteria.

Recognizing that merging diverse sources of evidence distorts the meaning of any grade,

educators in many parts of the world assign multiple grades. This idea provides the foundation

for standards-based approaches to grading. In particular, educators distinguish among the

product, process, and progress learning criteria (Guskey & Bailey, 2010).

Product criteria are favored by educators who believe grading’s primary purpose is

communicating summative evaluations of students’ achievement and performance (O’Connor,

2002). They focus on what students know and are able to do at a particular point in time.

Teachers who use product criteria typically base grades exclusively on final examination scores,

final products (e.g., reports, projects, or exhibits), overall assessments, and other culminating

demonstrations of learning.

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Process criteria are emphasized by educators who believe product criteria don’t provide a

complete picture of student learning. From this perspective, grades should reflect not only the

final results but also how students got there. Teachers who consider responsibility, effort, or

work habits when assigning grades use process criteria. The same happens when teachers count

classroom quizzes, formative assessments, homework, punctuality of assignments, class

participation, or attendance.

Progress criteria are used by educators who believe the most important aspect of grading is how

much students gain from their learning experiences. Other names for progress criteria include

learning gain, improvement scoring, value-added learning, and educational growth. Teachers

who use progress criteria look at students’ improvement over a period of time, rather than just

where they are at a given moment. Scoring criteria may be highly individualized among students.

For example, grades might be based on the number of skills or standards in a learning continuum

that students mastered and on the adequacy of that level of progress for each student.

Typically, the “achievement grade” is expressed as a letter grade or percentage that represents

the teacher’s best judgment of the student’s level of performance relative to the explicit learning

objectives for the class or course. Computations of grade point averages (GPA) and class ranks

are exclusively based on these achievement or product grades. For nonacademic factors such as

homework, class participation, effort, and learning progress, teachers typically record numerical

marks (e.g., 4 = consistently, 3 = usually, 2 = sometimes, and 1 = rarely). The development of

rubrics helps make this process explicit for students and parents. For example, in the case of

homework, teachers may use categories.

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Teachers who report multiple grades for these different criteria don’t have to worry about how to

weight or combine the grading evidence. This avoids difficult arguments about the

appropriateness of various weighting strategies. Reporting multiple grades also increases the

validity, the reliability, and the fairness of the grading process. Furthermore, to the degree that

classroom assessments of student learning are aligned with student learning outcomes addressed

in large-scale state assessments, the relationship between product or achievement grades and the

accountability assessment results will be much stronger.

Best practices: Reporting

Most states today have common standards for student learning that identify what students should

learn and be able to do. Despite these common standards in English language arts (ELA) and

mathematics, few states have developed well-aligned and effective standards-based reporting

forms that overcome multiple design and implementation issues . Kentucky, however, has

initiated a statewide effort to develop a common, standards-based student report card for

elementary and secondary grades. Kentucky also was the first state to start implementing the

Common Core State Standards. The Kentucky experience in standards-based reporting shows us:

Teachers need to know the domains or strands, clusters or organizing elements, and standards;

Teachers need to base grades on explicit criteria derived from the clearly established learning

standards that appear in the national standards; and

Furthermore, if the standards-based approach is going to work for all students, the guidelines for

reporting must consider how well it will reflect the achievement of students with disabilities and

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English language learners (Jung, 2009; Jung & Guskey, 2010). The end result is the

transformation of the traditional approach into a standards-based report card that creates a

straightforward link between curriculum and assessment.

Standards-based procedures

The first step in any standards-based reporting is to develop a deep understanding of the student

learning standards. From this, educators can develop the critical strands of standards that will be

meaningful for reporting. Typically, three to five standards in a given subject are appropriate

(Guskey & Bailey, 2001). The goal is to develop reporting standards that mirror the strands in

the ELA standards and the domains in mathematics standards.

In ELA, for example, teachers may consider the strands or subdomains of reading, writing,

speaking/listening, and language. In math, teachers consider strands associated with operations

and algebraic thinking, number and operations, fractions, measurement and data, and geometry.

Some teachers might contend that the Common Core standards apply only to ELA and math.

However, professional organizations in every subject area have established standards for student

learning that are arranged in similar strands or subdomains. For example, the National Science

Teachers Association and the National Council for Social Studies have developed their own

standards; so have the national organizations for music education, physical education, arts

education, and others.

Finally, success in grading and reporting will be augmented as Internet-based applications are

developed that allow teachers to record student performance and tally it to determine grades.

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Such applications should be teacher friendly and include procedures for printing and distributing

report cards.

Structure and format

Standards-based reporting forms that include students’ photographs add a personalized element

to the reporting process. Other demographic information such as address, class, grade level, and

school should be included as well. This demographic information is followed by the standards-

based information about a student’s school performance.

The look of the report card changes with the grade level of the student. For elementary report

cards, each subject has specific content strands so teachers can provide separate grades for each.

This requires teachers to keep more detailed records of student performance and so it gives

parents and students more specific information about a student’s learning strengths and areas of

needed growth. This process helps unpack the standards and also contributes to having more

targeted supports for students, parents, and out-of-school organizations. Rubrics are developed to

determine the marks for process learning goals related to preparation, participation, homework,

cooperation, and respect.

Another possibility is to include process goals in sections labeled work habits, study skills,

and/or citizenship. Finally, elementary school report cards need to include a section for

description/comments with two components: (a) two or three sentences explaining more

precisely the emphases of instruction during the grading period and (b) a sentence or two about a

particular student’s strengths and areas for growth. The more specific the suggestions, the more

helpful they will be to students.

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For secondary report cards, it is also important to personalize them with the names and

photographs of each student’s teachers. Merging the class schedule program with the reporting

program is essential. As with the elementary report card, there is a section dedicated to academic

achievement (product) grades for each subject area or course. These grades are used to determine

course credit and to calculate GPA. The achievement grade must be based on the evidence of a

student’s academic performance and not include nonacademic factors related to work habits or

class behavior. Standards are based on the strands or domains in each content area. In addition to

reporting on academic achievement, process goals related to participation, cooperation,

homework, and punctuality are developed. Rubrics should be available for students and

parents/guardians. The description and comment sections include general statements for the class

as well as individual comments about each student’s performance.

Report cards at both the elementary and secondary levels should allow teachers to attach custom-

scoring criteria for students who may be working on modified and/or accommodated standards.

The specific strategies developed to support these modifications can then be described in the

Individual Education Plan (IEP) for students with disabilities and the Individual Student Plan

(ISP) for English language learners. This, in turn, helps parents and youth organizations support

the targeted response-to-interventions.

Implications for grading and reporting

If assessments are graded and reported the right way, they can be a powerful tool for student

learning. Classroom assessment practices that inform instruction will be invaluable as teachers

work to implement the Common Core standards, which are meant to prepare all students for

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college and/or career. Grades should be carefully computed and summary comments should be

carefully formulated. Grades are most effective when they reflect only achievement. When

grades include other aspects of student performance (e.g., effort or progress), they have less

meaning as a summary of achievement.

Grading

Based on countless interactions with teachers, we’ve concluded that the first step in sound

classroom assessment practices associated with grades is to make them meaningful. The primary

issue is to figure out how to weight and combine different factors into the final grade and

summative comments. When the guidelines provided within the standards are applied, the

problems associated with hodgepodge grading methods may be eliminated. The standards

provide a sound alternative or grading system that can be used to replace traditional grading

practices.

The second element of the system is about identifying factors that relate to achievement in direct

or indirect ways; teachers must decide what evidence best serves the purpose. Under the

suggested system, teachers would assign separate grades for achievement, effort, and progress.

Grades become more meaningful when separate grades are assigned for each category. Grades

reflecting academic achievement are determined separately from undefined aspects of process

and progress. The end result will be not only more meaningful grades but more useful grades that

will inform teaching and learning.

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QNO5 (b): What are purposes of assigning grades to the student’s achievement and what

these grades reflect.

ANS: The grades teachers and professors assign to students’ work and performance have long

been identified by those in the measurement community as prime examples of unreliable

measurement (Brookhart, 1993; Stiggins, Frisbie, & Griswold, 1989). What one teacher

considers in determining students’ grades may differ greatly from the criteria used by another

teacher (Cizek, Fitzgerald, & Rachor, 1996; McMillan, Workman, & Myran, 1999). Even in

schools and colleges where established grading policies offer guidelines for assigning grades,

significant variation remains in the grading practices of individual teachers and professors

(Brookhart, 1994, McMillan, 2001). One reason for this variation is that few teachers or

professors receive any formal training on grading and reporting. Most have scant knowledge of

the various grading methods, the advantages and disadvantages of each, or the effects of different

grading policies (Stiggins, 1993, 1999). As a result, the majority of teachers and professors rely

on traditional grading practices, often replicating what they experienced as students (Frary,

Cross, & Weber, 1993; Guskey & Bailey, 2001; Truog & Friedman, 1996). Because personal

recollections of these experiences vary among teachers and professors, so too do the practices

and policies they employ. Despite their questionable psychometric properties, however, grades

have a powerful influence on students. Grades reflect the teacher or professors’ judgment of

students’ level of achievement and, ideally, provide students with information they can use to

improve their performance. But grades also have been shown to have strong and lasting effects

on students’ attitudes, behaviors, and motivation to learn. The grades teachers and professors

assign to students’ work and performance have long been identified by those in the measurement

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community as prime examples of unreliable measurement (Brookhart, 1993; Stiggins, Frisbie, &

Griswold, 1989). What one teacher considers in determining students’ grades may differ greatly

from the criteria used by another teacher (Cizek, Fitzgerald, & Rachor, 1996; McMillan,

Workman, & Myran, 1999). Even in schools and colleges where established grading policies

offer guidelines for assigning grades, significant variation remains in the grading practices of

individual teachers and professors (Brookhart, 1994, McMillan, 2001). One reason for this

variation is that few teachers or professors receive any formal training on grading and reporting.

Most have scant knowledge of the various grading methods, the advantages and disadvantages of

each, or the effects of different grading policies (Stiggins, 1993, 1999). As a result, the majority

of teachers and professors rely on traditional grading practices, often replicating what they

experienced as students (Frary, Cross, & Weber, 1993; Guskey & Bailey, 2001; Truog &

Friedman, 1996). Because personal recollections of these experiences vary among teachers and

professors, so too do the practices and policies they employ. Despite their questionable

psychometric properties, however, grades have a powerful influence on students. Grades reflect

the teacher or professors’ judgment of students’ level of achievement and, ideally, provide

students with information they can use to improve their performance. But grades also have been

shown to have strong and lasting effects on students’ attitudes, behaviors, and motivation to learn

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