ABBREVIATIONS

WHO World Health Organization

DAWASCO Dar es salaam Water and Sewerage Corporation

DAWASA Dar es salaam Water and Sewerage Authority

URT United Republic of Tanzania

UNICEF United Nation Children’s Fund

SPSS Statistical Package of Social Science

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

UWSSA Urban Water and Sanitation Authorities

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 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUTION
1.1 Background Information
Water is one of the fundamental resources that are important to human being lives as well as
to other living organisms. Water is universal resource because of its ability to dissolve other
substances in large quantity compared to other substances.

Midway through the international decade for action for “water for life” the importance of
water on the global agenda is gradually rising (UN General Assembly 2004; UNESCO
2009; WWC 2009). Access to safe water and sanitation is critically related to all eight
millennium Development goals.

Water can be categorized into two main groups, which are ground water and surface water
these are both important sources for community water supply needs.
Groundwater is water located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and in
the fractures of rock formations (Hemson, 2008).
At least 880 million people globally do not have access to improved sources of water
(WHO/UNICEF, 2010). The majority of the unsaved people live in rural areas and in the
low-income urban areas. There is no doubt that the scale of urban water poverty is less
significant, however the number of people lacking access to water supply and sanitation in
urban areas is increasing at fast rate and this phenomenon is most prominent in peri-urban
neighborhoods ( Blackmore, 2008)

Water as a resource is scarce because of its usefulness and the supply of it does not intact to
the needs of water in agriculture, domestic and industrial sectors while satisfying
environment at the same time. So to help meet the water needs other countries especially in
the Middle East tends to import food from other countries so as to save water uses in
agriculture sector (WHO, 2009)

Water scarcity or lack of safe water is one of the world’s most leading problems affecting
more than 1.1 billion people globally, meaning that one in every six people lack access to
safe drinking water. The joint monitoring programme for water supply and sanitation set up
by the World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
defines safe drinking water as “water with microbial, chemical and physical characteristics
that meets WHO guidelines or national standards on drinking water quality”.

Developing countries in Africa suffers on water shortage/scarce supply either permanent or

periodically. Commonly evidence that has been brought by the Global Water Supply and
Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report is that, ‘‘Water accessibility shortage is mainly caused
by population increase, growing mushroom industries and extensive agriculture practices’’.

The important roles that water plays in enhancing social economic and environmental
development, makes water scarcity and competition for this resource to be crucial problem
(Kironde,2000). Also the rapid population growth in the country and global climatic
changes exacerbate the situation (URT, 2006). About 73% of the urban population and 50%
of rural population in Tanzania had access to reliable water supply (URT, 2006).
Sustainability of water services in urban and rural Africa is quietly low due to
environmental and technical problems and many others related social economic and
management aspects (Harley and Reed, 2004).

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As a whole and on average, Tanzania has extensive water resources. According to the Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2008), in Tanzania had 96.27km 3 of renewable water
resources per year. This corresponds to 2,266m 3 per person and year. Tanzania cities the
maintenance and development of water and sewerage infrastructure is carried out by Urban
Water and Sanitation Authorities (UWSSAs). UWSSAs are autonomous legal entities that
are meant to operate on the basis of commercial principles. They have been established in
19 major urban cities in accordance with the Waterworks Act No. 8 of 1997.
In the Dar es Salaam, two public sector institutions are officially responsible for the water
and sewerage services. The Dar es Salaam water and sewerage Authority (DAWASA) is the
owner of the city’s water supply infrastructure. Meanwhile, the operational management of
supply has been delegated to a public utility, Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage
Corporation (DAWASCO). This Institutional framework is the outcome of a failed attempt
at a full-fledged privatization of the city water sector (de Waal and Cooksey, 2008).
DAWASCO was established following the cancellation of the contract between DAWASA
and the foreign owned private utility City Water Service Ltd in 2005. There has been very
little subcontracting of activities to the private sector since. Nearly 90 percent of the city’s
formal water supply originates from the Ruvu River and the rest is provided by DAWASA
boreholes.
Dar es salaam Water and sewerage corporation(DAWASCO) is a sole provider of water
supply and sewerage services in Dar es salaam city and parts of coast region, the corporation
is responsible for the management , operation and maintenance of water supply and waste
water disposal services. DAWASCO has put up strategy aimed at improving its services to
its clients in Dar es salaam, Kibaha and Bagamoyo. Water connection and distribution by
City Water in numbers at Kinondoni Municipal where by water for domestic uses are 5311,
Institutional are 63 Commercial are 1056 and Industrial are 6 and the total are Total 6436
(URT, 2006).
1. 2 Statement of the Problem
Urban areas in developing countries are experiencing rapid population increase, the
population is growing at the rate of 6.5% per annum and it shows that 3/4 of the population
in urban does not live in planned settlement which influences difficulties on accessibility
and availability of supply of water services and sanitation with other services like health
(Harvey and Reed, 2004). Accessibility of water in Kinondoni municipality in general is
poor, due to that it is among of the districts with a high population which is 1,775,049 and in
Sinza ward the population is about 40,546 (URT,2012) . Most of the people in Sinza ward
depend on buying water from vendors of unknown sources hence suspected to be unsafe
water/unsanitary. The outcomes of using water from unknown sources are generally
impedes to healthy problems, which have economic impacts to the household, especially the
rural and urban poor communities (SIDA, 2004).
Despite the efforts made by the government through provision of policy guidelines to
private and public partnership and other tactics of reducing the problem of water availability
and accessibility, but still the problem is increasing due to population increases as well. This
study seeks to assess the challenges facing community members in accessibility to clean
water supply in Kinondoni Municipality taking Sinza ward as a case study.
This study attempted to contribute towards knowledge concerning baseline conditions on the
water availability and accessibility in Dar es Salaam at Sinza ward and its analysis may
contribute to the understanding of various ongoing changes and trends. According to
(Kulindwa, 2005), research into the consequences of water shortages and price surges is
needed, while the (UNDP, 2006) points to a lack of figures on the number and types of
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 water sources used, as well as insufficient knowledge of the complex water reality urban
settlement in the developing world must cope with.

The government of Tanzania through all municipal agencies tried to comply with and
implement the National Environmental Policy and the National Environmental Act by
improve waste collection, drainage, water and sanitation program. Often they lack the fund
needed to meet the responsibilities entailed, or the supervision capabilities to counter actions
that contravene city law and bylaws.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

1.3.1 General objective
i. To assess the challenges facing community members in accessibility to clean water
supply.
1.3.2 Specific objectives
i. To examine the challenges of clean water supply.
ii. To explore accessibility of community to water supplied.
iii. To examine the initiatives taken by water authority in improving water sources and its
accessibility.

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1.4 Research Questions
Research question Variables

1. What are the statuses of water supply in Sinza ward?  Good

 medium
 bad
 worse

2. What is the affordability of community to water supplied?  Cost

 time

3. What are the initiatives taken by the water authority in  Involvement of

improving water sources and its accessibility? private sector
 Infrastructure
rehabilitation

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1.5 Scope of the Research
The study will be conducted in Dar es salaam region in Kinondoni municipal at Sinza ward
focusing on the assessment of the challenges facing community members in accessibility to
clean water supply to its households. Much emphasizing will be examining the current
situation of the clean water accessibility, with factors that hindering the accessibility of
clean water and suggesting the remedial interventions and actions for promoting sustainable
clean water accessibility by identifying sources of water supply and usage of the water in the
households.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The study influenced awareness to community, municipal and investors to encourage clean
water availability and accessibility in order to meet the National Strategy for Growth and
Reduction of Poverty (MKUKUTA), as well as Millennium goal number two that has the
vision of Ensuring clean water supply sustainability by 2022 and that cannot be achieved
except for water accessibility to all. Also, different planners and policy makers will induce
this study to any of their fields so as to develop better ways on the accessibility to water and
its simple accessibility so that to ensure healthy to the Sinza residents and through that they
can emphasize their efforts to the development issues as well as community development

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 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1Theoretical Literature Review
For as long as failures in water aid have existed, science has been intent on devising more
successful philosophies on water aid and community development. Fresh off the failures of
the UN first water decade (1981-1990), the Global Consultation of Safe Water and
Sanitation for the 1990‟s was held in New Delhi, India to refocus the misguided efforts of
the first water decade. The consultation, comprised of the UN and 115 participatory
countries, vowed to prioritize more focus on those in greatest need. The credo from New
Delhi was “Some for all, rather than more for some.” (UN- HABITAT, 2008).
In 1992, the International Conference on Water and the Environment took place in Dublin,
Ireland. During the forum, the participating countries came up with four principles that have
now become cornerstones when considering global water development (ICWE, 1992).
These four principles became known as the Four Dublin Principles (they became further
defined in various publications and manuals). The first principle states that fresh water is a
finite resource that is essential to sustain life, development and the environment. The second
principle states that all water development and management should stem from a
participatory approach. This principle emphasizes the need for communities to desire and
ask for help, as well as their inclusion in the solution. The third principle recognizes that
women play a central role in the development and management of water. This principle,
along with the second principle, is an essential lesson in the application of community water
development. Finally, the fourth principle recognizes that water has economic value. This
principle is important because it places emphasis on the need for water in business and local
economy. The success of this forum came through recognizing the importance of
community participation, the importance of women and the importance of waters effects on
business and economy. All of which are vital pieces of the community water development
puzzle.
Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM, 2010) sought to embody the Dublin
Principles and put them into practice. The IWRM was developed as a comprehensive
participatory planning and application method for the development of water resources.
IWRM seeks to manage resources (including water) in a socially and economically
equitable manner. IWRM strove to include all stakeholders in the decision-making process
and recognized the many uses of water (agricultural, drinking, healthy ecosystems and
livelihoods).
Several other forums and conferences on international water development helped continue
to shape the new paradigm of water aid. In 1997 the first World Water Forum, in
Marrakech, Morocco, was held. At this forum, nations discussed the risk of water causing
wars and possible solutions to avert those consequences. In 2000, at the second World
Water Forum, the focus was on the proper governance of water resources. It was here that a
need to include all stakeholders in the management of water resources was emphasized
again. Additionally in 2000, the UN created Millennial Development Goals (MDGs) aimed
at eliminating global poverty, increasing global health and education and promoting equality
and global partnership. One of these millennial goals was stated “to halve, by 2015, the
proportion of people who are unable to reach or to afford safe drinking water.” Spurned by
the MDGs, the UN decided to give the water decade idea another try and proclaimed that
2005-2015 would be the International “Water for Life” decade. This decade would focus on
community involvement and education, with specific priority placed on Africa’s needs.
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Lastly, in 2006 the fourth World Water Forum was held in Mexico City. At this forum, a
need for local solutions was publicly recognized again. It was here that the focus of
community water development continued the shift towards a more local, enabling approach
In conjunction with the emerging philosophies of water aid by large-scale international aid
organizations, community development and water aid has also been elaborated on through
grassroots movements. Topics such as community participation, listening, governance,
education and proper assessment of technology have all experienced great reform in the
private sector.
For example, Slim and Thomson’s book Listening for a Change, explores the necessity of
listening to make lasting changes in community development. They say, “It is not enough
for the development expert to summarize and interpret the views of others-the „others‟ must
be allowed to speak for them.” Listening For A Change goes on to mention that listening to
the community’s needs may require seeking out “hidden voices” or the voices that may be
lost in the shuffle. These “hidden voices” may not have much sway in the community, but
they may be very important stakeholders in the project (Slim and Thomson 2007). In many
male-dominated cultures, women or children may be key candidates for “hidden voices”. It
is important to identify all stakeholders in the project and hear their opinions. Community
participation has also been discussed at length. The Development Dictionary (Sachs, et al.;
1993) states, “The long-term sustainability of projects is closely linked to active, informed
participation by the poor.” It continues that, “Present obstacles to peoples development can
and should be overcome by giving the populations concerned the full opportunity of
participating in all the activities related to their development.”(Ramaswami, et al.; 2013)
also stresses the importance of community participation when he says, “Participatory
planning builds local trust and independence.”(John, 2008) draws a direct connection
between the sustainability of water aid and participation when he says, “The effectiveness
(of aid) is increased if the people on the receiving end of new technology and other
programs are enfranchised in the process.” (Ramaswami, et al.; 2013) also speaks on the
issue of water resource governance in his paper Integrating Developed and Developing
World Knowledge into Global Discussions and Strategies for Sustainability. He states that
any shared common resource (like drinking water) must be communally governed in the
developing world. He also stresses the need to have all stakeholders represented by the
authority. Ideally, the governing contingency would be made up of several community
nominated leaders, representing all demographics, with the best interest of the community in
mind. (Maggie, 1998) sums up the issues of proper assessment of technology and education
in water aid in her review of the UN’s first water decade. Of water systems provided by the
UN, “Where such installations had been provided in the name of public health as a free
public good, there was no sense of community ownership. Consequently, when they broke
down the community did nothing. They neither knew how to mend their system nor
perceived the breakdown as their problem”. This statement implicates the need for easily
maintained technologies, as well as education of maintenance.
2.2 Empirical Literature Review
2.2.1Defining access to water for urban populations
Defining access to water has been a contentious issue. Stakeholders in the water sector,
particularly donors, governments and researchers, often disagree on the appropriate
definition. The most frequently used definitions compare water coverage within and
between countries in order to quantify the global status and progress of international
interventions like the millennium development goals (MDGs). WHO/UNICEF Joint
Monitoring Programme (JPM) defines access to ‘drinking water’ as the “proportion of
population using an improved drinking-water source” (UNICEF/WHO, 2012).
7
Thisdefinition is often accompanied with a definition of access to basic sanitation. Critics
contend that JMP’s definition does not capture the complex nature of water particularly
from the perspective of the users. (Kristof, 2005), for example, introduces other variables
that are important for assessing peoples’ access to water and includes adequate quality,
adequate quantity, reliability and convenience. Others substitute access to water with ‘water
use’ arguing that mere provision of water does not necessarily indicate actual use by the
people (Kayagaet al.; 2009). Kudatet al.; 1993) also argue that households are more likely to
demand certain attributes of water and not water itself. They observe that different attributes
of water have different value depending on the intended use by the households. For instance,
the quality of water may be very important for uses such as drinking and cooking as
opposed to water for watering plants. They also argue that coping strategies of households
are responses to one or more attributes of water.
In this study we adopt the definition by (Kristof, 2005) which recognizes four important
dimensions of water access: reliability, convenience, quantity and quality. Good access to
water then implies access to “a reliable source of water which supplies adequate quantity
and adequate quality of water in a convenient way” (Kristof, 2005).
2.2.2 Estimates of demand for water and willingness to pay for improved water
Authors in this category investigate the determinants of household demand for piped water
systems which aim to extend pipe connection to all residents in urban areas. Cost recovery
objectives and economic efficiency have high priority in the design of these systems
(Goldblatt, 1999). Instead of depending on government subsidies, sustainability of the water
service will depend on the fees collected from water sales, and therefore, on the urban
residents’ willingness to pay. Thus, studies have attempted to “forecast the fraction of a
population willing to pay for a pipe connection at different price levels and for different
attributes of the piped water, which would provide planners with an essential input for
system design, operation, and pricing” (Gunderson &Holling 2002).
Overall, authors that have attempted to estimate water demand have shown that price affects
household water supply choices and decision to connect to piped water connections.
Household surveys and contingent valuations (contingent valuations – offering households
with hypothetical improved water use situations and asking them questions about how they
would behave or willing to pay) are frequently used to study the water demand behaviours
of households (World Bank 1993; Virjee& Gaskin, 2010; Whittington et al., 1998).
However, estimation of water demand in developing countries faces challenges of
unavailability and inaccuracies of data. For instance, many households can hardly estimate
exactly how much water they use (Nauges& Whittington, 2010). Assuming that access to
water will be improved when citizens are willing to pay for the services ignores other issues
that affect the provision of water services like the capacity of utility companies.
2.2.3 Consequences of poor access to water for the users
A few authors in this category have focused explicitly on documenting the consequences of
poor access to water, while others examined such consequences only incidentally. For
instance, (Wutich and Ragsdale, 2008) examined the prevalence of water-related emotional
distress among household heads in a squatter settlement in Cochabamba, Bolivia. Water-
related emotional distress was the consequence of three dimensions of water insecurity:
inadequate water supply, insufficient access to water distribution systems, and seasonal
scarcity of water. Emotional distress was common among households who had to pay for
water and changed forms over time: from fear, to worry, to anger, to ‘molestia’ (being
“upset about a situation that they believe should not have to be endured” (Wutich&
Ragsdale, 2008). Furthermore, they found that use of seasonal water sources (river water

8
and rainwater) was not associated with emotional distress due to unrestricted access. They
argued that water-related emotional distress is the consequence of the social and economic
negotiations people employ to gain access to water distribution systems in the absence of
clear procedures or established water rights rather than absolute scarcity of water.
Other authors have documented the consequences of coping strategies incidentally as they
were studying issues related to intermittent supply of water. (Choe et al.; 1996) found that
households in India were forced to buy storage facilities in order to cope with unreliable
water supply. Other consequences included the loss of time to conduct economic activities
as households spend a significant amount of time fetching water. The opportunity cost of the
hours spent fetching water implies loss of wage income (Boone et al.; 2011).
Authors have also raised concerns over disparities in the way the consequences of coping
affect water users depending on their gender, economic status and geographical location.
For instance, poor households spend a significant amount of time collecting water than non-
poor households. Consequently, poor households spend long hours looking for water and
have less time for other economic activities. In Kenya, (Gulyani et al.; 2005) found that
poor households without private piped connections were spending an average of 42 minutes
in collecting water while non-poor households spent only 15 minutes. Similar observations
on disparities on water collection time were made in India (Choe et al.; 1996) and
Madagascar (Boone et al.; 2011). In Bolivia, (Wutich and Ragsdale, 2008) found that
women experienced significantly more emotional distress over water insecurity than men.
2.2.4 Water vending
Urban residents with poor access to water are left with two choices – to buy water from
(re)sellers or get it for free from sources like rivers, lakes or unprotected dug wells. Usually
charged water is considered better than free water (Persson,2002), hence choosing the latter
is often considered as the last resort. Water sellers exist in different forms: ‘resellers’- those
connected to the public pipe-water system who sellto others (Kjellén, 2000) and ‘water
vendors’ - mobile water distributors who carry water to the premises of the consumers.
However, in this study, water vending will refer to forms of non-utility water provision for
fees.
A notable discussion within water vending literature is the comparison between prices
households pay to private independent providers and piped water connections provided by
public utility companies. Such comparisons are motivated by the quest for equity - the
premise that water should be accessible and affordable to all. A number of authors have
shown that poor households pay more than their counterpart rich households (Kjellén &
McGranahan, 2006; Wutich & Ragsdale, 2008). However, others defend these high prices
arguing that they are caused by cost mark-up particularly when the vendors buy water from
utility companies and have to transfer it to users at a different location (Gulyani et al.;
2005). The results of these comparisons have created a dilemma among researchers,
practitioners, donors, and policymakers on the role of private water providers. On one hand,
authors like (Collignon & Vézina, 2000; Gulyani et al., 2005; Kjellén & McGranahan, 2006;
Schaub-Jones, 2008; M. P. van Dijk, 2008) recognize the role played by small scale water
providers and suggest that they should be considered as an integral part of water provision
systems. On the other hand, many governments and water utility companies object or ignore
the involvement of small scale providers claiming that they are driven by profit making –
they charge high prices for poor quality water (Collignon and Vézina, 2000)). Many critics
consider non-utility providers as temporary solutions (Kjellén & McGranahan, 2006).

9
With regard to water vending, studies on coping strategies of citizens have also focused at
understanding how households manage the cost of water. The vast majority of people
without a piped water connection often works in the informal sector and thus has no regular
income and low savings. In contrast to water utility companies who often charge monthly
water bills, non-utility water providers offer flexible payment methods such as ‘pay-as-you-
go’ billing and short term credit (Collignon & Vézina, 2000). These flexible payment
methods allow poor households to continue to access water even when they temporarily
have no money.
2.2.5 Collective responses to poor access to clean water
The majority of urban residents in developing countries who live in informal settlements
and peri-urban areas do not have access to public piped water connections. Lack of land
tenure as well other institutional and economic factors impede public water providers from
extending piped connections to informal settlements. Faced by limited resources, collective
responses to water problems seem a plausible alternative for many citizens living in
unplanned areas. Some governments also promote collective responses to poor access to
water. For instance, the Tanzanian water authority provides for community water
management for rural areas (URT, 2002). Similar arrangements are employed in informal
and peri-urban areas. Different forms of collective responses exist such as community
associations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or groups of people forming private
companies. Authors in this category have attempted to understand the formation,
management, effectiveness and sustainability of collective responses to poor access to water.
(Akbar et al.; 2007) examined as they feared eviction. However, their study suggested a
model that would factors influencing the formation of community organizations in Dhaka,
Bangladesh. Using a household survey, they observed that institutional and political factors
were the main barriers to improved water supply in informal settlements. For example,
corrupt staff of the public water provider did not extend piped water to informal settlements
as they would lose extra income that they were earning through bribes. Similarly, informal
dwellers were discouraged to pay for water improvementshelp improve community
management of water improvements. The model emphasized engagement of the private
sector to empower local communities.
In Tanzania, (Kyessi, 2005) found that while self-help community initiatives have the
potential to improve access to water they are also confronted with constraints. With the help
of financial and technical assistance from NGOs and local governments, communities in the
fringe settlements of Dar es Salaam city were able to form neighborhood associations and
mobilized funds for water infrastructure improvements. Such initiatives, he argues, have the
potential to utilize local resources and improve community organization and access to water.
However, the sustainability of such processes is threatened by poverty of households, lack
of transparency and “hidden interests such as political gains by local leaders and political
parties” (Kyessi, 2005).

2.2.6 Users’ experiences and perspectives of poor access to water

Recent developments in the service provision include users as an integral part of the design,
management and operation of water supply programmes. The involvement of users is
thought to minimize previous failures of many top-down water projects. Authors in this
category introduce issues of governance and institutional arrangements related to water
provision. That is, studying users’ experiences and perspectives is integral to understanding
the factors that are likely to influence the improvement of services.

10
More recent studies have also emphasized how water users respond to mechanisms of
efficient revenue collection for water supply companies and utilities. Efficient revenue
collection allows water utilities to achieve cost recovery which is critical for service
reliability and sustainability of services. (Hope et al.; 2011) looked at water user experiences
with recently introduced innovations such as mobile water payments of water bills. Mobile
water payments are expected to offer a promising new approach to improve the financial
performance of water service providers, offer time and cost savings to water users, and
increase customer loyalty for mobile network operators (Hope et al.; 2011). Interestingly,
they found that levels of wealth, education or water service satisfaction were not significant
in inducing water users to adopt mobile transactions.
In Kenya, (Kremer et al.; 2006) studied the distribution of free WaterGuard (a drinking
water treatment solution) and examined how two groups of households – those who received
WaterGuard and those who did not (a control group) – responded to the technology. They
found that the wide-spread use of WaterGuard was much influenced by social networks.
New users of the technology played a big role in dissemination among users of the drinking
water treatment liquid. To their surprise, about 20% of the households who were given free
WaterGuard did not use it and only a fraction of households were buying it despite being
offered deep discounts. Their study could not explain such user behaviors. These findings
raise important questions about the extent to which financial costs influence the adoption
and use of water and other related products.
The reviewed literature also shows that studies of citizens’ coping mechanisms have
evolved over the last four decades. They have shifted from being mainly concerned with
measurement of price and income elasticity to a more holistic approach of understanding the
reality of access to water. However, little is known about the day-to-day experiences of
citizens as they cope with poor access to water. In particular, knowledge is scarce on how
Dar es Salaam residents get water to their houses – the decisions they make and the people
they contact.
2.3 Research Gap
Water access is generally measured by the distance to a source of water. This concept of
access overlooks important issues such as the reliability, quantity, quality and cost of water.
In Tanzania the problem of water is still severe; nearly 42 million people don’t have access
to adequate water and sanitation (MeretheSiri, 2009). And despite the vast amounts of fresh
water available, many Tanzanians are still faced with water shortage due to insufficient
capacity to access and store it both in rural and urban areas.
Therefore, wider generalizations of the finding done in other areas might not reveal the real
facts about the situation on other areas. Furthermore; Sinza Ward with new management
teams and currently, no study has been reported to be conducted in the assessment on the
accessibility of Clean water supply in the study area.

2.4 Conceptual Framework

Water availability and accessibility has been determined by different initiatives that have
been enforced with government, communities as well as private sectors. With respect to
independent, intermediate and dependent variables water will be available and accessible to
urban residents since all these three variables are depending to each other so as to ensure
water sustainability on the part of availability and accessibility. (See figure no 1.)

11
 Independent Variables Dependent Variable

Assessment of clean water Accessibility to

supply. clean water
Water Sources. supply
Effectiveness of Water projects

Transport and size

Figure 1: conceptual Framework

The figure above shows the accessibility of clean water supply which was enrolled with
assessment of water sources, effectiveness of water projects, involvement of private sector
in water initiatives, improving billing systems. It also shows the relationship between
independent variables and intermediate variables that the existence of independent variables
entails the performance of intermediate variables hence reveals to dependent variables as the
outcome of the initiatives taken to independent and intermediate variables.

12
 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1The study Area
/ 3.1.1Location
Dar es Salaam Region is one of the Regions in Tanzania Mainland’s. Dares Salaam is
located in the Eastern part of Tanzania mainland at 6o51’South latitude and 39o18’East
longitude on a natural harbor on the eastern coast of Africa, with sandy beaches in some
areas. Due to close proximity to the equator and the warm Indian Ocean, the city
experiences tropical climatic conditions, typified by hot and humid weather throughout
much of the year. It has a tropical wet and dry climate. Annual rainfall is approximately
1,100 mm, and in a normal year there are two rainy seasons, “the long rains” in April and
May and “the short rains” in November and December. Dar es Salaam Region has a total
area of 1,590.5 km2.(URT, 2012).
Administratively, Dar es Salaam Region is divided into three (3) districts, namely Ilala,
Kinondoni and Temeke Districts. All three are governed as municipal council, and so all the
city’s suburbs or wards are affiliated with them. . The districts consisted of a total of 52
units called wards (Kironde, 1995; Mwandsoya and Meena 1998), which were again divided
into sub-wards. Sub-ward was a translation of the Kiswahili word “Mtaa” that was used to
describe the smallest administrative unit in the local government in urban areas of Tanzania,
which varied in spatial and population size as there were no specifications in the existing
local government regulations (Kyessi, 2005). Sub-ward residents elected seven members as
their leaders, who served as a link to the upper-level government and provided management
of social and economic development for its residents (Kyessi, 2005).
Dar e salaam is the largest city in Tanzania, with a population increase of 5.6 percent per
year from 2002 to 2012; the city is the third fastest growing in Africa (ninth fastest in the
world). Dar es Salaam had a population of 4,364,541 in 2012. The metro population is
expected to reach 5.12 million by 2020. (URT, 2012)
The area of concentration is Sinza ward in Kinondoni municipality since it is among the
areas that facing the unavailability and in excess of clean water that can lead to the area to
be subject to some diseases like diarrhea and typhoid.

3.2 Research Design

The research designs employed will be cross sectional design which entails collection of
data at one point in time.
3.3Types of Data

3.3.1Qualitative Data
Refers to the information which involves a descriptive judgement using concepts words
instead of numbers.

3.3.2Quantitative Data
Refers to the information which involves a measurable quantity numbers are used for
example length, mass, temperature and time.

13
3.4 Sources of Data
3.4.1 Primary data
Primary data will be collected during research study by using personal interviews,
questionnaires, focus group discussion and physical observation.

3.4.2 Secondary data.

Secondary data will be obtained from various documents such as Kinondoni District
environmental profile, books, Ward Executive Office.

3.5 Data Collection Method and Tools

3.5.1 Interviewing
This face-to-face conversation done by researcher and respondent; a researcher used a
structured questionnaire as a tool in interviewing to obtain required information. The
information that was obtained through this method was categorical and descriptive data.

3.5.2 Observation

Various activities performed by the people around Sinza ward Will be physically observed
to validate the given data and pictures were taken to strengthen the validity.

3.5.3 Questionnaire
Questionnaire is suitable for collecting information from both types of respondents
(Mellenbergh, 2008). This instrument provided the researcher with the ability to test the
views and attitudes of respondents. A structured questionnaire was used in this study and
administered in Swahili to the heads of household. Face to face questionnaire administration
was employed

14
3.6 Sampling
3.6.1Sampling frame
All dwelling units in Sinza ward in the households, where by the number household in Sinza
ward is 6887 (URT, 2012). Data collection Will involve Sinza A and Sinza B sub wards.

3.6.2 Sample size

The sample size will be obtained through the use of formula whereby standard errors of 10%
of the household heads will be selected. The sample size was determined by using the
formula by (Yamane, 1967);
n= N
I+N (e)
Were by,
n=sample size
N=Total house hold population i.e., sampling frame.
E=Error of detection (10%)
n= 6887
1+6887(0.1) 2
= 99
Therefore, sample size taken Will be 99 respondents of Sinza Ward and 10 key informants
which will be as follows; 4 street leaders, 3 ward officers and 3 DAWASCO officers
making total of 109.
3.6.3 Sampling procedure
The combination of probability and non-probability technique will be used to select the
appropriate respondents. To get household respondents simple random and quota sampling
techniques will be used while for other key informants purposive sampling technique will be
used.
3.7 Detailed Field Work
Before data collection all data collection tools will be prepared in English and be transferred
into Swahili. This will be because Swahili is the commonly used language in that area of
study. Before the data collection itself the researcher will be intended to conduct a pre-test
of especially the questionnaire and interview schedule to make sure the questions are clear
and understanding as the tools to be adjusted accordingly.

The study will be introduced to the Ward officer in order to get permission of data collection
procedures. After the introduction to the leaders, the study will involve members of
community as well as Sinza Ward workers in order to collect the accurate information
which deals with the challenges towards accessibility of clean water supply in Sinza ward.

Reconnaissance survey will be conducted to assess the research area. The aim is to have
preliminary analysis of the study area. The work will involve identifying different activities
relating to accessibility of water inn Sinza ward.

15
3.8 Data Processing, Analysis and Presentation
3.8.1 Data processing
Data after being collected will be checked for relevance and edited to remove some errors
existed. The corrected information will be coded for analysis. On entering the collected data
from questionnaire survey into computer, Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)
will be used. This will be done by numbering them so as to match with SPSS statistical
package Version 20 for the analysis procedure.
3.8.2 Data analysis
Data will be analyzed by using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science), and
descriptive statistics technique will be employed to obtain mean and frequencies of the
analyzed data determined to interpretation, also observed and verbal information analyzed
using context analysis. The analysis of descriptive will be used to access respondents’
characteristics, types of social economic activities undertaken by households and strategies
adapted by local people and other stakeholders to overcome the problem of inaccessibility of
clean water. Most of data will be analyzed by SPSS computer software.

3.8.3Data presentation
Data output will be presented in form of tables as the way to keep them clear and
understandable to anyone who come across the document and read it as portrayed by the
researcher
3.9 Limitation of the Study
The researcher faced the various constraints during data collection, analysis and report
writing. Time will be very short to solicit the required data in order to go through analysis
and interpretation. Also, most of residents are no record concern of their income. Moreover,
the research budget will according to the anticipated available fund which will be very little
to match the demand of the study.

Inadequacy of fund given to this study made some of the respondents fail to participate fully
in the discussion because they needed money. The problem was solved by giving them a
brief importance of the study to their life and hence they were willing to provide data.

16
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APPENDINCES
Appendix 1: 1 Household Questionnaire

SECTION A: socio economic characteristics of respondents

001 Respondent Sex

Male =1, Female =2

( )

002 Respondent Age ……………

( )

003 Street/ Mtaa …………………………….. Ward………………...

004 Marital status

Single =1, Married =2, Divorced =3

( )

Widow =4

005 Occupation …………………………………………..

006 Education Level

Don’t know to read/ write =1, Adult Education =2, Primary STD IV=3, Primary
STD VII

=4 Secondary =5, University/ College =6, Special source (mention)

007 Household composition

Less than 5 years 5 – 15 Years 16 – 64 years More than 64

years
Sex F M F M F M F M
Member
Total

SECTION B: STATUS OF WATER SUPPLY IN THE COMMUNITY

21
008 Water is one of the basic need, what is your comment about currently status of
water (access) in your area?
1= satisfactory, 2= not satisfactory (
)
If not satisfactory give reasons ……………………
009 Is there any problem relating to accessibility of water?

1= Yes, 2= No
( )

If yes, what are they ……………………………………………………

0010 What is your opinion to the government in supporting the accessibility of water?

…………………………………………………………………………………

0011 what do you think about the current water rate?

1= Too high, 2= Normal, 3= Too low 4= Others (

)

0012 which of the following aspects of your water supply do need improvement in the
future?

1= Quality, 2=Pressure rate 3= Service quality 4=Billing system (

)

SECTION C: AFFORDABILITY OF THE COMMUNITY TO WATER SUPPLIED

013 Where do you get water for domestic use?

Water tape =1, street venders =2, Kiosk venders =3,

Well=4, Others =5
( )

014 Is the water you get enough for your family need?

01: Yes
( )

02: No

If no, why?

……………………………………………………………………………..

015 Do you afford water supplied?

01: Yes
( )

02: No

22
 It is expensive =1, Unsanitary =2, Not reliable =3
( )

016 How do you treat water before consumption?

1= Boiling, 2= The use of chemicals,

3= None of the above

( )

017 How far is the water source from your home?

1= 0-200m, 2= 200-400m, 3= 400-1km,

4= Above 1km (
)

018 Is there any program of improving accessibility of water in your community?

1= Yes, 2= No
( )

If yes mention………………………………………………………………

019 How do you participate in the program you have mentioned above?

………………………………………………………………………………

020 If you are connected to the main pipe of water how often do you access to it?

1= All the time, 2= during day time, 3= during at night, 4= Others

( )

SECTION D: INITIATIVES BY WATER AUTHORITY TO IMPROVE WATER

SUPPLY

021 Do you think the arrangement of the houses in the mtaa make accessing of

Tape water difficult?

1= Yes, 2= No
( )

If yes, explain ………………………………………………………................

022 Do you think water installation charges to your area to be one of the obstacles in
accessing tape water?

1= Yes, 2= No
( )

If Yes, explain…………………………………………..………..

023 Have you ever tried to make water installation at you home?

23
 1= Yes, 2= No
( )

If No, can you explain why?..................................................................

024 Apart from water authority is there any private sector dealing with water

Service in your area?

1= Yes, 2= No
( )

If yes, what are they, explain ……………………………………………

025 How do they help in supplying water?

1= Through fund, 2= Through expertise and advices,

3= through technical and lie infrastructure

( )

026 Is there any destruction of water Infrastructure?

1= Yes, 2= No
( )

If yes what are the causes …………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………

027 What are the measures taken by the Government and other authorities to assure you
with accessibility and availability of water?

…………………………………………………………………………………

028 What are other sources of water in your area? Mention

…………………………………………………………………………………

029 Do you think those measures taken by the Government and other authorities are
satisfactory?

1= Yes, 2= No (
)

If no, what do you think should be done to improve the situation?

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

030 How do you comment on the water installation in the urban area?

24
 ………………………………………………………………………………..

APPENDIX 2: QUESTONNAIRE FOR DAWASCO OFFICERS

1. Name…………………………………..
Title…………………………………..
2. Department/ section …………………………….
3. What are the objectives of your department? ………………
4. Where are the main sources of water you supply? ....................
5. How many customers are full supplied with water in relation to he demand?
................................................................................
6. Those who are not full supplied where do they get
water? ..............................................................................................................
..
7. What kind of treatment applied to water before supplied to
customers? .......................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
....................
8. How do you assist customers so as to consume clean
water? ..............................................................................................................
..
9. How many staff do you have in your office? .……Are they
enough?...........If not, what is your plan? ………………………
10. What is the cost for water installation from new
customers? .......................................................................................................
...........
11. How fast do you respond to their request? ................................
12. What is the contribution of water vendors in water supply in relation to your
company?............................................
13. How much do you charge per unit of water? ............................
14. What is the capacity of your company to discharged water per
day? .................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
.....................
15. What are challenges facing water supply programme especially in
Kinondoni
municipality?....................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................
25
 ..........................................................................................................................
........................................
16. What is your general comment on what mechanism to be used to solve
water problem in Urban areas take Dar es salaam as reference point
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………

APPENDIX 34: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR WEO/VEO

1. Occupation …………………………………………………………………………..
2. How long have you worked with this Ward/ Street…………………………………..
3. What are the main functions of your department
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………
4. Water supply sources

Sources of water Status of water sources

Tap

Shallow wells

Deep wells

Springs

Street vendors

Kiosk vendors

Others (mention)

5. Estimated coverage of people with access to water in the street/ ward

Ward/ Street Number of household Number of household

with access of water without access of water

26
6. Water is one of the basic need, what is your comment about currently status of
water (accessibility) in your area?
1= satisfactory, 2= not satisfactory
( )
If not satisfactory give reasons
7. Is there any problem relating to accessibility of water?
1= Yes, 2= No
( )
If yes, what are they ………………………………………………………….
8. How many by laws enacted by your council in regard with the use of water?
…………………………………………………………………………………
9. How do you enforce them to make sure that fully operates in the society?
………………………………………………………………………………………
……
10. What is your suggestion on solving that problem of inaccessibility of water in the
study area? …………………
11. What are the measures taken by the office in ensuring the accessibility of water to
the households? ………………………..
12. What is your opinion to the government and society in supporting the accessibility
of water? ……
13. Is there any waterborne diseases related to inaccessibility of safe water in your area?
1= Yes, 2= No
( )
If yes mention …………………

27
 APPENDICES I
TIMEFRAME
A c t i v i t i e s March, 2021 March, 2021 March, 2021 Apr, 2021 May, 2021` May, 2021

Proposal Writing

Proposal correction

Proposal final submission

Data collection

D a t a a n a l y s i s

Research report writing

Research report submission for correction

Final submission

28
APPENDICES II
BUDGET OF THE STUDY
Budget can be defined as an estimated of income and expenditure for a certain
period of time. The financial budget estimation which will be used in conduction of
this study is described on the table. The first part shows the needs that a research
will use, the second part shows the period of time in which money will be spent and
last part shows the amount of money which will be spent on each particular need.

Table 2: budget of the study

NEEDS EXPENSES
1. Transport 50,000/= Tsh
2. Accommodation 100,000/= Tsh
3. Food 130, 000/= Tsh
4. Paper work 50,000/= Tsh
5. Emergence 30, 000/= Tsh
6. Total 380,000/= Tsh
Source author, 2019

29
30