Energy Auditing: Unit - Ii

Energy Auditing & Demand Side Management Energy Auditing
UNIT – II
2. ENERGY AUDITING
INTRODUCTION
The manufacturing industry in India, accounts for over 50% of total commercial energy used
in the country. Across the world, industry consumes about 1/3 of all natural energy sources (Murphy
& McKay, Energy Management, Butterworth Heinemann, London, 1982). The high levels of energy
used in Indian Industry compared to similar industries in advanced countries, the increasing
problems of availability of energy sources and their ever escalating costs, strongly point to the
immediate need for effective control on the use of energy.
It is believed and often proved by actual studies that a reduction in energy consumption by as
much as 10-30% is a realizable goal in a large number of industries, by better and effective energy
management at unit level. And these savings can generally be achieved with little or no additional
investment.
Any savings that can be achieved in energy costs, directly add to the profit figures. While this
is also true, in respect of other direct costs as well, i.e. labour and material costs, it is much harder
and more difficult to achieve reduction in their costs.
Another area by which profitability of an enterprise can be improved is by increasing production and
market share; but these obviously require additional investments on expansion of manufacturing
facilities and man-power and involve added management and marketing effort; and a small portion
of increased sales volume contributes to profits.
While the situation from industry to industry may vary, it may be pertinent to state that
energy cost savings to the extent of 15-20% is definitely feasible, at least in those industries (besides
commercial buildings) where serious study has not yet been attempted. One can visualize the
improvement in profitability besides improvement in the competitiveness of Indian manufactured
goods in world market, which reduction in energy costs could result in, without any major
investment.
Definition & Objectives of Energy Management

The fundamental goal of energy management is to produce goods and provide services with
the least cost and least environmental effect. The term energy management means many things to
many people. One definition of energy management is:
"The judicious and effective use of energy to maximize profits (minimize costs) and enhance
competitive positions"
(Cape Hart, Turner and Kennedy, Guide to Energy Management Fairmont press inc. 1997)
Another comprehensive definition is
"The strategy of adjusting and optimizing energy, using systems and procedures so as to
P.SURESH BABU, AITS, RAJAMPET 25

reduce energy requirements per unit of output while holding constant or reducing total costs
of producing the output from these systems"
The objective of Energy Management is to achieve and maintain optimum energy procurement and
utilization, throughout the organization and:
 To minimize energy costs / waste without affecting production & quality
 To minimize environmental effects.
Common Units and Measurements

SI (System International de’ units) is followed throughout this course. However, the students
are expected to be familiar with other systems of units and their conversion from one system to the
other. SI is an absolute system of units.
Fundamental units of SI system
Eight fundamental units have been defined by SI system of units and all other units are
derived from these 8 fundamental units. These are tabulated below:
Unit / Dimension of
S. No. Fundamental unit
Measurement
1 Length Meter, m(L)
2 Mass Kilogram, kg (M)
3 Time Second, s(T)
4 Electric Current Ampere, A(A)
5 Temperature Kelvin, K
6 Luminous intensity Candela, Cd
Supplementary units
7 plane angle Radian, rad
8 supplementary angle Steradian, Sr
Decimal fractions and multiples
S. No. Prefix Fraction Symbol

1 Milli 10-3 m
2 Micro 10-6 u
3 Nano 10-9 n
4 Pico 10-12 p
5 Femto 10-15 f
6 Atto 10-18 a
7 Kilo 103 K
8 Mega 106 M
9 Giga 109 G
10 Tera 1012 T
1 Micron: 10-6 m or 10-3 mm

Let us convert some of these units into other systems, which are still in use (in India and abroad).
1 inch : 1” : 2.54 mm (exactly)
1 foot : 1’ : 30.48 cm (exactly) or 0.3048 m
1 yard : 3’ : 0.9144 m
1 lb mass : 453.6 gm : 0.4536 kg
Definitions
Velocity is defined as rate of change of displacement. In SI units, velocity is represented by m/s.
Acceleration is defined as rate of change of velocity and is represented by m/s 2. Acceleration due to
gravity is expressed by g and is generally taken as 9.81 m/s2 .
Force is defined by Newton’s second law of motion and is denoted by ‘Newton’. 1 Newton is the
force that is required to bring 1 unit of acceleration (1 m/s 2 ) in a unit mass (1 kg).
F : ma (kg*m/s2 ) : measure in Newton
Work is defined as force acting over a distance.

W : F*s (kg.m/s2 )*m : Newton-m : kg.m2 /s2
Energy and Work have the same units, i.e. Newton-m, which is also called joule. 1 erg is the unit of
energy in CGS system of units.
1 erg : 10-5
Power is defined as rate of work done and is expressed in watts.

P : W/T (kg.m/s2 .s) : Newton – m/s2 or joule/s or watt (W)
According to First law of thermodynamics, work and heat are mutually convertible.
2.1. ENERGY AUDIT

The main purpose energy audit is to increase energy efficiency, and reduce energy related
costs. Energy audit is not an exact science. It involves collection of detailed data and its analyses.
More often sophisticated instruments are used to collect data, but its analyses and interpretation
requires technical knowledge, experience, and sound judgment.
Energy audit is a fundamental part of an Energy Management Programme (EMP) in
controlling energy costs. It will identify areas of wasteful and inefficient use of energy.
As per the Energy Conservation Act, 2001, Energy Audit is defined as "the verification,
monitoring and analysis of use of energy including submission of technical report containing
recommendations for improving energy efficiency with cost benefit analysis and an action plan to
reduce energy consumption".

2.2. DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS

The successful implementation of individual energy conservation programme depends on a
proper organizational framework and baseline data for identifying and evaluating energy
conservation opportunities. The determination of the baseline data requires a comprehensive and
detailed survey of energy uses, material-energy balances, and energy loss. This survey is generally
referred to as the Energy Audit.
To save energy, it is necessary to know where, how and how much energy is being
consumed. The objective of energy audits is to characterize and quantify the use of energy within the
plant at various levels in departments, sections, major processes, and major equipment. The plant
energy study provides a comprehensive and detailed picture not only of the type and quantity of
energy being used but also how efficiently it is being utilized, and where it is wasted or lost.
The energy audit process include description of energy inputs and product outputs by major
departments or by major processing functions, and will evaluate the energy; efficiency of each step
of the manufacturing process. Means of improving these will be listed, and a preliminary assessment
of the cost of these improvements will be made to indicate the expected payback on any capital
investment needed.
The aims of energy audit are as follows:
1. To identify the main energy users and quantify their annual energy consumption.
2. To ascertain the optimized energy data
3. To determine the availability or energy/production data
4. To investigate the distribution systems for the site services and note any existing metering
5. To prepare energy and process flow diagrams for the site
The Energy Audits are normally carried out in two phases, i.e., Preliminary Energy Audit (PEA) and
Detailed Energy Audit (DEA).
2.3. TYPES OF PLANT ENERGY STUDIES

The type of Energy Audit to be performed depends on:
 Function and type of industry
 Depth to which final audit is needed, and
 Potential and magnitude of cost reduction desired
There are mainly two types of energy audit, viz.
1) Preliminary Energy Audit (PEA)
2) Detailed Energy Audit (DEA)

2.3.1. Preliminary Energy Audit (PEA) / House Keeping Practices

Considerable savings are possible through small improvements in the “house keeping”
practices, and the cumulative effect of many such small efficiency improvements could be quite
significant. These can identify by a short survey, observation and measurements. Many energy
conscious industries have already achieved considerable progress in this area.
Approach to Preliminary Energy Audit (PEA)
This essentially involves preliminary data collection and analyses. The PEA is based on
collection of available data, analysis, observation, and inference based on experience and judgment is
carried out within a short time.
The PEA is the first step in implementing an energy conservation programme, and consists of
essentially collecting and analyzing data without the use of sophisticated instruments. The ability and
experience on the part of Energy Auditor will influence the degree of its success.
Normally the results of the audit would depend on :-
Experience of the auditor Availability and completeness of data
Physical size of the facility Depth of analysis of available data
Complexity of operations within the facility Awareness of energy matters within the facility
Broadly, the audit is carried out in six steps:-

1. Organize resources
 Manpower / time frame
 Instrumentation
2. Identify data requirements
 Data forms
3. Collect data
a. Conduct informal interviews
 Senior management
 Energy manager/coordinator
 Plant engineer
 Operators and production management and personnel
 Administrative personnel
 Financial manager
b. Conduct plant walkthrough/visual inspection
 Material/energy flow through plant
 Major functional departments
 Any installed instrumentation, including utility meters
 Energy report procedures
 Production and operational reporting procedures

 Conservation opportunities
4. Analyze data
a. Develop data base
 Historical data for all energy suppliers
 Time frame basis
 Other related data
 Process flow sheets
 Energy consuming equipment inventory
b. Evaluate data
 Energy use consumption, cost, and schedules
 Energy consumption indices
 Plant operations
 Energy savings potential
 Plant energy management program
 Preliminary energy audit
5. Develop action plan
 Conservation opportunities for immediate implementation
 Projects for further study
 Resources for detailed energy audit
➢ Systems for test
➢ Instrumentation; portable and fixed
➢ Manpower requirements
➢ Time frame
 Refinement of corporate energy management programme
6. Implementation
 Implement identified low cost/no cost projects
 Perform detailed audit
The preliminary energy audit is essentially, as the name implies a preliminary data collection
and its analysis process. Readily available data on the plants energy systems and energy-using
processes or equipment are obtained and studied. The operation and condition of equipment are
observed by going around the plant. These provide basis to develop recommendations for immediate
short term measures and to provide quick and rough estimates of savings that are possible and
achievable.
A preliminary study usually identifies and assesses obvious areas for energy savings such as
stream leaks, compressed air leaks, poor or missing insulation, condensate recovery, idling
equipment, deterioration and deficiencies in combustion and heat transfer equipment etc. and serves
to identify specific areas for the detailed plant energy study.

2.3.1.1. Preliminary Energy Audit Methodology

Preliminary energy audit is a relatively quick exercise to:
 Establish energy consumption in the organization
 Estimate the scope for saving
 Identify the most likely (and the easiest areas for attention
 Identify immediate (especially no-/low-cost) improvements/savings
 Set a 'reference point'
 Identify areas for more detailed study/measurement
 Preliminary energy audit uses existing, or easily obtained data
2.3.2. Detailed Energy Audit (DEA)

This would be a comprehensive energy efficiency study using portable energy monitoring
instruments. The essential part of this audit is carrying out various measurements and analyses
covering individually every significant energy consuming plant item/processes, to determine their
efficiencies and loss of energy at that point, and potential energy savings are explored and
crystallized, and every recommendation for investment is supported by criteria such as pay-back
analysis.
The detailed plant energy study is a comprehensive analyses evaluation of all aspects of
energy generation, distribution and utilization within the plant. At the plant level, the analyses
require time series data on a daily, monthly, or yearly basis, on the quantities of all forms of primary
energy flowing into the plant, e.g. coal, fuel oil, electricity, etc. and production figures of major
products, by-products and waste products, at the department or section level. Information is required
on the quantity of energy forms consumed, and the production figures of intermediate products. At
the equipment level, in addition to the quantities of energy forms and material products, process
parameters such as temperature, pressure, flow rate, etc. are also required.
Data generation and collection is an essential and critical element of a detailed energy audit
study. Difficulties in getting data required generally arise due to unavailability of historical records.
The acquisition of actual operating data through existing or new permanently installed instruments or
portable test instruments cannot be overemphasized in this context.

Ten steps methodology for DEA

STEP
PLAN OF ACTION PURPOSE / RESULTS
No
Phase-I: Pre Phase Audit
Step-1 ✓ Plan and Organize • Resource planning, Establish/organize a Energy
✓ Walk through Audit audit team.
✓ Informal Interview with • Organize Instruments & time frame
Energy Manager, Production • Macro Data collection (suitable to type of
/ Plant Manager industry.)
• Familiarization of process/plant activities
• First hand observation & Assessment of current
level operation and practices.
Step-2 ✓ Conduct of brief meeting / • Building up cooperation
awareness programme with • Issue questionnaire for each department
all divisional heads and • Orientation, awareness creation.
persons concerned (2-3 hrs.)
Phase-II: Audit Phase
Step-3 ✓ Primary data gathering, • Historic data analysis, Baseline data collection
Process Flow Diagram, & • Prepare process flow charts
Energy Utility Diagram • All service utilities system diagram (Example:
Single line power distribution diagram, water,
compressed air & steam distribution.
• Design, operating data and schedule of
operation
• Annual Energy Bill and energy consumption
pattern (Refer manual, log sheet, name plate,
interview)
Step-4 ✓ Conduct survey and • Measurements:
monitoring Motor survey, Insulation, and Lighting survey
with portable instruments for collection of more
and accurate data. Confirm and compare
operating data with design data.
Step-5 ✓ Conduct of detailed trials / • Trials/Experiments:
experiments for selected o 24hours power monitoring (MD, PF, kWh
energy guzzlers etc.).
o Load variations trends in pumps, fan
compressors etc.
o Boiler/Efficiency trials for (4-8 hours)
o Furnace Efficiency trials Equipments
Performance experiments etc.,
Step-6 ✓ Analysis of energy use • Energy and Material balance & energy
loss/waste analysis.
Step-7 ✓ Identification and • Identification & Consolidation ENCON
development of Energy measures.
Conservation (ENCON) • Conceive, develop, and refine ideas
opportunities. • Review the previous ideas suggested by unit
personal

• Review the previous ideas suggested by energy

audit if any
• Use brainstorming and value analysis
techniques
• Contact vendors for new/efficient technology.
Step-8 ✓ Cost benefit analysis • Assess technical feasibility, economic viability
and prioritization of ENCON (Energy
Conservation) options for implementation.
Step-9 ✓ Reporting & Presentation to • Documentation, Report Presentation to the top
the Top Management Management.
Phase-III: Post Audit Phase Assist and Implement ENCON recommendation
Step-10 ✓ Implementation and Follow- measures and Monitor the performance
up • Action plan, Schedule for implementation
• Follow-up and periodic review
The duration of DEA studies depends on plant size and complexity. Whereas the preliminary
energy study can be carried out in a few days, the detailed study would require anywhere from few
weeks to months to years of effort.
Plant energy studies can be carried out in house if adequate resources and expertise exist for doing
so. Alternatively or additionally, external assistance may be sought from energy consultants,
equipment suppliers, and engineering and design firms, in either case, intense interaction between
plant personnel and the study team is essential for a proper understanding and a meaningful analysis
of the plants energy options. Too often, the plant energy study is considered to be the consultants
problem, resulting in minimal inputs and involvement from plant personnel. This attitude is counter-
productive. Without the active participation of all levels, full benefits cannot be expected to be
accomplished.
2.4. ENERGY CONSUMPTION MONITORING

Energy Consumption is to monitor, assess by a company/industry and compared with a
specific products manufactured by the industry can be done by two parameters as follows.
They are,
1. Energy Index
2. Cost Index
2.4.1. Energy index

Energy index is a useful parameter to “monitor and compare energy consumption of specific
products manufactured by the industry”.
Energy index is the figure obtained by dividing energy consumption by production output,
and the index may be calculated weekly, monthly or annually. Although the total energy indices are
sufficient for monitoring purposes, a record of the individual energy indices should be maintained. In

the event of an increase or decrease (due to perhaps a conservation measure) in energy index, the
particular source can be investigated immediately.
total energy consumption

Energy Index (EI)= (based on weekly, monthly & annually)
total production output
Energy may be purchased in various units, for example, coal in tons; gas in ft 3 ,m3 , therms; oil
in gallons, litres, tons, barrels etc. the relevant conversion units from one system to the other are
given below:
To determine the heat available from the fuel, it is necessary to know the calorific value per
unit quantity of energy form and this data is also given in the following example. Further, when
estimating the total energy used by a company that consumes several energy forms, it is convenient
to rationalize the heat units to common basis.
Example 1:
An office block uses 40*103 gallons of fuel oil per year for heating purposes. The calorific value is
175*103 Btu/gal. The fuel consumption may be expressed in litres or m3 .
Sol:
40*103 *4.545 litres = 182*103 litres = 182 m3
The calorific value may be quoted as 103 J/litres
175*103 Btu/gal = 175*103 *0.2321*103 J/l = 40600*103 J/l = 40.6*106 J/l
The total theoretical heat available becomes:
i. 40*103 gal *175*103 Btu/gal = 7.00*109 Btu/year
ii. 182*103 I * 40600 *103 Btu/gal = 7.39*109 J/year
iii. 182 m3 *40.6*106 Btu/gal = 7.39*109 J/year
Example 2:
Consider a company using three energy forms – oil, gas and electricity. The annual energy
consumption is shown below in various energy units. Each of these energy types may be represented
as a percentage of the total energy used and tabulated as an energy balance.
Energy type Consumption Energy Energy (J) Energy (Wh)

Oil 10*103 gal 1.775*109 Btu 1.872*1012 0.520*109
Gas 5*103 therms 5*103 therms 0.526*1012 0.146*109
Electricity 995103 kWh 995103 kWh 0.358*1012 0.995*109
Total 2.754*1012 1.661*109
Note: Calorific value of oil: 18.3*10 Btu/lb; Density of fuel: 9.7 lb/gal

Percentage Energy Balance
Energy form Percentage
Oil 67.9
Gas 19.1
Electricity 13.0
Total 100.0
Example 3:
If the company in Example 2 produces 100*10 3 tons of a particular product, calculate the energy
indices.
Sol:
Oil energy index : 0.520*109 Wh/100*109 = 5.20*103 Wh/ton of product
Gas energy index : 0.146*109 Wh/100*109 = 1.46*103 Wh/ton of product
Electricity energy index : 0.995*109 Wh/100*109 = 9.95 103 Wh/ton of product
Total energy index : 0.661*109 Wh/100*109 = 16.61*103 Wh/ton of product
2.4.2. Cost Index

The cost index is another parameter which can be used to “monitor and assess energy
consumption by a company”. The cost index is defined as the cost of energy divided by the
production output. An individual cost index can be determined for each energy form and for the total
energy consumption by the company.
total cost of energy

Cost Index (CI)=
total production output
Example 4:
Table below shows energy costs for a company using coke, gas and electricity. This company
produces 15*103 tons per year. Calculate cost indices.
Energy type Consumption Costs (Rs.)

Coke 1.5*103 (tons) 108.0*103
Gas 18*103 (therms) 3.6*103
Electricity 1*109 (Wh) 22.5*103
Total 134*103
Sol:
Coke cost index = 108.0*103 / 15*103 (tons) = Rs. 7.2/ton
Gas cost index = 3.6*103 / 15*103 (tons) = Rs. 0.2/ton
Electricity cost index = 22.5*103 / 15*103 (tons) = Rs. 1.5/ton

Total cost index = 134.1*103 / 15*103 (tons) = Rs. 8.9/ton
2.5. REPRESENTATION OF CONSUMPTION

Several methods of representing energy flows and energy consumption are available and
these may be graphical or tabular. Most among them are the “pie chart and the sankey diagram”.
2.5.1. Pie chart

Energy usage is plotted on a circular chart where the quantity of a particular type is
represented as a segment of a circle. The size of the segment will be proportional to the energy
consumption using a particular fuel (energy form or source) relative to total energy use. The energy
units must be rationalized to the same units.
Example 5:
A company uses on an hourly basis 11.72*10 3 therms of gas, 500*103 W electricity and 4.32*109 J
oil. Represent these energy consumptions in a pie chart.
Sol:
The results may all be expressed in watts as follows:
Gas = 11.72*103 / 29.31*10-3 = 400*103 W
Electricity = 500*103 W
Oil = 4 .32*109 *0.278*10-3 = 1200*103 W
Total hourly energy consumption = 2100* 103 W
The pie chart can be represented as follows
Energy Consumption
Gas
68
Electricity
86
Oil
206
Gas Oil Electricity
Consequently, the angles occupied by the segment are:

Gas = (400*103 /2100*103 )*360 = 680
Oil = (1200*103 /2100*103 )*360 = 2060

Gas = (500*103 /2100*103 )*360 = 860
Example 6:
The use of pie charts may be extended to show the consumption of a particular type of energy
through a company. Consider electricity usage by a company as:
Office heating 150x103 W (1000 )
Lighting 120x103 W ( 800 )
Boiler house 90x103 W ( 600 )
Process 180x103 W (1200 )
-------------- --------
Total 540 x103 W (3600 )
The pie chart can be plotted as follows
Energy Consumption
Office
Process heating
120 100
Lighting
Boiler 80
house
60
Office heating Lighting Boiler house Process
2.5.2. Sankey diagram

Following Figure shows a Sankey diagram which represents all the primary energy flows into
a factory. The widths of the bands are directly proportional to energy production (source), utilization
and losses. The primary energy sources are gas, electricity and coal/oil (say, for steam generation)
and represent energy inputs at the left-hand side of the Sankey diagram.
Sankey diagrams are quite difficult to construct as measurements must be made for all
energy flows and this will involve considerable metering and instrumentation. However, the picture
can be gradually built up starting from gas and electricity before going on to steam. The construction
of a Sankey diagram is an excellent exercise in energy management and its value is in highlighting

Boiler
Losses Power
(700) house
Steam
Losses
Losses Heating
(170)
(630) Losses
(650)
Oil Process A
(3850) Steam (1700)
Process B
Gas (500)
(700)
Electricity
(500)
Boilers Office Power Lighting

(200) heating house (150)
(200) (150)
Energy Inputs: Oil, Gas, Electricity are represented in left side
Sankey diagram representing energy usage (10 6 Joule per hour) by a company
losses which one never knew existed.

For the purpose of monitoring and checking energy consumption and usage on a weekly or
monthly basis, pie charts and Sankey diagram are relatively difficult. An alternative method of
monitoring energy consumption on a time-dependent basis is to use load profiles.
2.6. LOAD PROFILES (HISTOGRAM)

The usages of oil, gas and electricity in a plant can be plotted on a graph as shown in
following Figure. The results illustrate seasonal variations and perhaps variations in production
schedules. This technique has the major advantage that after a period of time, energy consumption
patterns emerge and it is possible to tell at a glance if an area is exceeding its predicted value. An
overall load profile equivalent to several pie charts and sankey diagrams can be obtained by plotting
the previous profiles can be also drawn.
Load factor — The ratio of the average load over the peak load. Peak load is normally the maximum
demand but may be the instantaneous peak. The load factor is between zero and one. A load factor
close to 1.0 indicates that the load runs almost constantly. A low load factor indicates a more widely
varying load. From the utility point of view, it is better to have high load-factor loads. Load factor is
normally found from the total energy used kilowatt-hours.

Monthly Load Profile (kw) for electricity

usage
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Monthly Load Profile (kw) for gas usage

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Monthly Load Profile (10 3 kw) for oil usage

700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0

2.7. ENERGY CONSERVATION SCHEMES

Development of an energy conservation programme can provide savings by reduced energy
use. However, it is economical to implement an energy conservation program only when savings can
offset implementation cost over a period of time. Potential areas of conserving energy and a logical
analysis of the methods or techniques of conservation would provide a systematic and disciplined
approach to the entire conservation strategy as a sequel to the energy audit. Some established
conservation trends are replacement, retrofit, process innovation, fuel conversion and co-generation.
It is generally considered that investment for energy conservation should be judged by
exactly the same criteria as for any other form of capital investment. Energy conservation measures
may be classified on an economic basis and fall into the following three categories:
1) Short term: These measures usually involve changes in operating practices resulting in little
or no capital expenditure.
2) Medium term: Low-cost modifications and improvements to existing equipment where the
pay-back period is less than two years and often under one year.
3) Long term: Modifications involving high capital costs and which frequently involve the
implementation of new techniques and new technologies.
While the first two categories together can achieve savings of the order of 5-10%, capital
expenditure using existing and new technology may achieve a further 10-15%. It is impossible to
give a comprehensive list of all items in each category but selected examples are given for each
section.
Short-term energy conservation schemes

Items in this group can be considered as a tightening of operational control and improved
housekeeping.
a. Furnace efficiencies: greater emphasis should be placed on minimum excess combustion air.
Oxygen levels of flue gases should be continually monitored and compared with target
values. Oil burners must be cleaned and maintained regularly.
b. Heat exchangers: in the case of heat exchangers where useful heat is transferred form product
streams to feed streams, careful monitoring of performance should be carried out to
determine optimum cleaning cycles. Frequency of cleaning will generally increase as a result,
with consequent improved heat recovery.
c. Good housekeeping: doors and windows should be kept closed as much as possible during the
heating season. Wear natural light is sufficient, do not use artificial light. Avoid excessive
ventilation during the heating season. Encourage staff to wear clothing appropriate to the
temperature of the working areas.
d. Use of steam: major steam leaks should be repaired as soon as possible after they occur: often
a firm specializing in ‘on stream’ maintenance can be used. One crude distillation columns

where live steam is used for stripping purposes, the amount required should be optimized and
carefully controlled.
e. Electrical power: in industries where all the electrical power is ‘imported’, conservation
measures can reduce the annual electricity costs by 10-15%. Steam driven turbines may prove
more economical as prime movers. Natural air cooling may be sufficient and therefore
induced-draught fans may be taken out of commission. Pumping costs can sometimes be
saved by utilizing gravity to move products from one tank to another. Where possible, use
off-peak electricity.
Medium-term energy conservation schemes

Significant savings in energy consumption are often available for quite modest outlays of
capital based on a pay-back period of less than two years.
a. Insulation: Improving insulation to prevent cold air leaking into the building and also,
improving insulation of the steam distribution system. Many optimum insulation thicknesses
were determined at a time when fuel oil was £6 per tone and, consequently, at present fuel oil
prices, optimum thicknesses have increased appreciable. In addition, in older plants lagging
may have deteriorated to varying degrees.
In one company, additional insulation was added to four boiler casing after
calculation had showed the structures could accept the increase in temperature. For an outlay
of £25000, savings of £60000 per annum were achieved.
In an oil refinery the lagging on the process steam system was up rated to new
optimum thicknesses and the £20000 invested in the project was recouped within a year.
b. Heating systems: Improving the time and temperature control of the heating systems in
buildings should result in substantial energy savings.
c. Replacing air compressors
d. Instrumentation: to measure and control the energy conservation parameters, adequate
instrumentation must be provided or operators will soon lose interest in maintaining
efficiencies if they are working with inadequate and unreliable instruments.
e. Process modifications: Many of these schemes will depend on the nature of the industry
concerned, however, one general scheme will be considered. Steam condensate, if
uncontaminated, may be used as boiler feed water. Improved condensate return systems can
increase the amount recovered. The effect will be to increase the heat recovered in the
condensate and at the same time reduce raw water and treatment costs.
In one instance 10000 kg h-1 of condensate was recovered for an investment of
£10000; the pay-back time was less than six months.
f. Burners: the control and amount of atomizing steam is important and often in furnaces and
boilers the amount of atomizing steam is far in excess of design.

In a hospital two fuel oil-fired boilers were examined and in some instances it was found that
1 kg steam/kg fuel oil was being utilized. The oil burners were replaced and the atomizing
steam requirements are now 0.1 kg steam/kg fuel oil. The pay-back for an outlay of £12000
was ten months.
g. Electrical Power Savings: considerable savings may be made by adjusting the electrical
power factor correction.
Capacitors were installed in one particular company at a cost of £10000. The power factor
was increased from 0.84 to 0.97 reducing the maximum demand level by over 14 per cent.
The pay-back time was nine months.
To increase plant capacity two feed pumps may be run in parallel to achieve the required feed rate.
When replacement, for mechanical reasons, becomes necessary it is more economical to replace the
pumps by a single pump having a higher capacity.
Long-term energy conservation schemes

To obtain further economics in energy consumption required the spending of significant
amounts of capital, although, in many cases, the return on capital for the long-term investment may
not be as good as that of the medium term. Full financial evaluation is needed, using the appraisal
techniques discussed in unit-V, to ensure that investment is economically viable.
a. Heater modifications: the installation of heating tubes and air pre-heaters to extract more heat
from furnace flue gases.
b. Improved Insulation: Additional lagging of heated storage tanks. This type of project often
comes within the medium-term group.
c. Heat recovery: Improved heat recovery in the processing areas by additional heat exchange
schemes.
Many of the energy projects that have been outlined may be adopted by a wide variety of companies.
However, some are more specific in their application and it is necessary to consider the contribution
of energy costs to companies and energy usage by different industries.
2.8. MEASUREMENTS IN ENERGY AUDIT

Measurements are critical in any serious effort to conserve energy. Apart from helping to
quantify energy consumption, measurements also provide a means to monitor equipment
performance and check equipment condition. Examples of measurements and instrument types are:

1. Flow/Velocity: Orifice plate, picot tube, Ventura tube, turbine meter, vortex shedding flow
meter, ultrasonic flow meter.
2. Temperature: Thermometers – Bimetallic, Resistance etc., Thermocouple, Radiation
pyrometer.
3. Pressure: Bourdon gauge, Diaphragm gauge, manometers
4. Stack Gas Analysis: Orsat apparatus, Oxygen analyzers, carbon dioxide analyzers, Carbon
monoxide analyzers.
5. Heat Flow: Thermograph equipment
6. Electrical: Multi-meter, Ammeter, Wattmeter, Power Factor meter, Light meter
7. Stream Trap Testing: Stethoscope, Ultrasonic Detector
Analyses, evaluation and interpretation of data lead to identification of various measures that
would save energy. These measures are then evaluated with regard to their technical and economic
feasibility resulting in recommendations for further action
2.8.1. Electrical Measuring Instruments

These are instruments for measuring major
electrical parameters such as kVA, kW, PF, Hertz,
VAr, Amps and Volts. In addition some of these
instruments also measure harmonics. These
instruments are applied on-line i.e., on running
motors without any need to stop the motor. Instant
measurements can be taken with hand-held meters,
while more advanced ones facilitates cumulative
readings with print outs at specified intervals.
Ammeter: it measures the current absorbed by
appliances and motors.
Voltmeter: it measures the voltage or voltage drop in
the grid or electrical circuits.
Watt-meter: it measures instant power demand of appliances/motors or the power performance of
generators.
Cos-meter: it measures the power factor or monitors the rectification devices.
Multi-meter: it measures all the above quantities.
Lux meters: Illumination levels are measured with a lux meter. It consists of a photo cell which
senses the light output, converts to electrical impulses which are calibrated as lux.
All the above instruments are usually portable. They are connected to the wiring with the use
of nippers and they could feature a data-logger. Measurements of electrical power and energy
consumption should be made on all energy intensive areas and installations. Since these instruments

are generally not expensive, it is advised to examine their permanent installation in some of the
above cases.
During the measurement of all the above quantities, a strict distinction must be made between the
total power (metered in kVA) and the active power (usually metered in kW), as well as of Cos.
Care is also needed with electrical loads that are not expected to present a sinusoidal waveform, as is
the case with variable speed motors and UPS. Usual measuring instrumentation is based on a
sinusoidal waveform, which gives wrong readings. In such cases, the use of meters measuring real
RMS (Root Mean Square) values is necessary. The function of such meters is based on digital
sampling, so they could be substituted with PC-based meters.
2.8.2. Temperature measurement

PC-based temperature meters are already available in respective shops. The most usual
measuring technologies include:
a) Resistance Thermometer Detectors (RTD):
From the most technologically advanced instruments. They feature internal signals for
calibration and resetting. They are very accurate and are used as permanent instruments in M&A
applications.
b) Thermocouples:
They are widely used and are not expensive. They cover a wide range of temperatures, from a
few degrees up to 1000oC and are usually portable. They need frequent calibration with specialized
instruments. Their main disadvantage is that they have a weak signal, easily affected by industrial
noise.
c) Thermistors:
They are used as permanent meters and are of low cost. They are characterized by a strong,
linear in variation with temperature signal and have an automatic resetting capability. Still this type
and the thermocouple are not usually found in M&V (Measuring & Verification) set-ups.
d) Infrared thermometers:
They measure temperatures from a distance by sensing the bodies’ thermal radiation. They
sense «hot-spots» and insulation problem areas. Portable and easy to use
but with limited accuracy; they also require the knowledge of the
emissivity coefficient.
This is a non-contact type measurement which when directed at a heat
source directly gives the temperature read out. This instrument is useful for
measuring hot spots in furnaces, surface temperatures etc.

2.8.3. Flow measurements

To estimate heat flow through a fluid, it is necessary to measure its flux (mass or volume).
Such measurements typically include air and liquid fuel, steam and hot/cold water or airflow
measurements. Combined with heat measurement, they provide an estimation of heat supply.
Installation of fuel flow meters is compulsory for all large boilers and furnaces. It is also
recommended on steam networks and on hot water installations, used in process and boiler rooms.
Combining a measurement of temperature difference with flow measurement, allows for the
measurement of the thermal and energy flows.
The meter should be carefully selected, taking into account the fluid type, any diluted and
corrosive substances, the speed range and the relevant costs. Flow-metering sensors can be classified
as follows:
 Differential pressure meters (of perforated diaphragm, Venturi or Pitot tube type)
 Interference meters (of variable cross section, positive shift, eddy or vortex metering type)
 Non-interference meters (of ultrasonic or magnetic meter type)
 Mass meters (of Coriolis or angular momentum type)
From the above flow meters, the portable ones are usually the Pitot tube and non-interference
meters. Pitot tubes are usually accompanied with an electric manometer for speed measurement.
Ultrasonic meters technology has also progressed, offering accuracy close to 1-2%. They require
relatively pure fluids and are easy to use. They are installed simply with the use of nippers on the
measured tubing.
The most usual meters for permanent heat flow measurements are the eddy type or vortex-meters.
Additionally, hot wire anemometer type instruments are used, either as portable or permanent meters.
During fluid flow measurements, the instructions of the instrument’s manufacturer must be closely
followed. Attention should also be paid, to calibrate the meters frequently, as their calibration is most
difficult.
2.9. PRESENTATION OF ENERGY AUDIT REPORT

Each report should include:
1. Title Page
• Report title
• Client name (company for which facility has been audited)
• Location of the facility
• Date of Report
• Audit contractor name
2. Table of Contents
3. Executive Summary

All information in the Executive Summary should be drawn from the more detailed
information in the full report. The Executive Summary should contain a brief description of
the audit including:
• Name, plant(s), location(s) and industry of the company audited
• Scope of the audit
• Date the audit took place
• Summary of baseline energy consumption presented in table form. Baseline
energy
• consumption refers to the energy used annually by the facility/system
audited.
• Results:
- Assessment of energy-consuming systems
- Identification of EMOs and the estimated energy, greenhouse gas
(GHG), and cost savings associated with each option along with the
related cost of implementing the measures and the expected payback
period. This material should be presented in table form. In the event
that an audit covers more than one facility, the statistics for each
facility should be reported on an individual basis to the extent
possible.
• Recommendations summarized in table form.
4. Introduction
The Introduction should include:
• Audit Objectives: a clear statement that defines the scope of the energy
audit in clear and measurable terms - example, space(s), systems and/or
process(es) to be audited
• Background Information: a description of the location of the facility where
the audit will be conducted, as well as information regarding facility layout,
products/services produced/distributed, operating hours including seasonal
variations, number of employees and relevant results of previous energy
initiatives.
5. Audit Activity and Results
This section should make reference to:
• Description of the audit methodology (techniques - e.g. inspection,
measurements, calculations, analyses and assumptions)
• Observations on the general condition of the facility and equipment
• Identification / verification of an energy consumption baseline in terms of
energy types, units, costs and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for the

facility/system being assessed

• Results of the audit including identification of EMOs and the estimated
energy, GHG, and cost savings associated with each measure as well as the
required investment and payback period associated with each of the EMOs
identified.
6. Recommendations
This section should list and describe the recommendations that flow from the
identification of EMOs and may include details concerning implementation. An
explanation should be provided for recommending or not recommending each EMO
identified in the results.
7. Appendices
Appendices include background material that is essential for understanding the
calculations and recommendations and may include:
• Facility layout diagrams
• Process diagrams
• Reference graphs used in calculations, such as motor efficiency curves
• Data sets that are large enough to clutter the text of the report.
General Points on Report Writing

Grammar and Style: The report should be grammatically correct. The language should be clear,
concise and understandable by all readers. The writer should avoid jargon.
Documentation: All numbers related to the results should be supported by information indicating
how they were derived. This includes all savings, investment and payback information.
Mathematical Accuracy: All calculations should be checked for mathematical accuracy. Where, for
example, a table showing the breakdown and total of energy use or costs is included in the report, the
total of the numbers in the breakdown should equal the amount shown as the total. If, for some
reason, this is not the case, there should be a note explaining why the discrepancy is appropriate.
Similarly, if numbers used in the full report differ from corresponding numbers shown in the
Executive Summary, the report should contain a note or notes explaining why the discrepancy is
appropriate.
Logical Consistency: The results should be logically consistent. For example, separate summaries in
the report may use different bases for calculating energy savings. One summary might be based on
energy savings related to the recommended measures while a second summary might be based on
energy savings related to both recommended and non-recommended measures. If such a logical
inconsistency is considered necessary by the auditor, it should be explained in a note and in the
example above, both tables should be referenced to the note.
Illustrations: Graphs and charts may be used to spark interest in the report and implementation of

the recommendations but should not be used as a substitute for numerical data.
Tables for the Executive Summary
Baseline Energy Use and Cost

Audited Electricity Natural Gas Other (Specify) Total
Facility/System Cost
Description
Units Cost Units Cost Units Cost

(kWh/yr) (Rs.) (m3/Yr) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.)
TOTAL
Recommendations
Rec. # Description Potential Potential Other Potential Cost to Simple
Electricity Natural potential savings implement Payback
Savings Gas energy (Rs./yr.) (Rs.) (Yrs.)
(kWh/yr) Savings savings
(m3/Yr) (specify
type and
units
TOTAL

Summary (***Following is not in syllabus***)
The ABCs of Energy conservation schemes can be used as a checklist to identify the areas of
deficiency and adopt the right approach for energy savings.
A B C
Adjustable frequency drives Balancing energy Co-generation
Ambient air reset controls Blow-down controllers Chiller efficiency optimization
Analysis of audit results Break-even analysis Copper fins in cooling /heating
D E F
Demand control Economizer controls Fenestration techniques
Delay monitoring and Efficient equipment Filter loading control
avoidance selection Fan efficiency optimisation
DDC management systems Energy audit and analysis
G H I
Glazing systems for heat gain Heat energy tracking Insulation
Gas cooling Heat recovery methods Infiltration control
General housekeeping High efficiency criteria inspections
J K L
Job-task analysis Kettle heat control Lighting
Joint sealing and testing kWh and kW reduction Load calculation/shedding
Justify retrofits keg temperature control Life-cycle cost analysis
M N O
Maintenance Non conventional methods Occupancy sensors
Metering Novel technologies Optimization
Monitoring Natural gas use Over-rating avoidance
P Q R
Peak demand shaving Retrofits
Power factor corrections Quality Return air systems
Pay-back period Rate of return
S T U
Solar energy Time of day U-values
Steam traps Thermostat settings Utilities
Selection criteria Temperature control Utility meter close to site
V W XYZ
Variable air volume boxes Water conservation XTMR losses
Variable supply air set point Waste heat recovery Yearly cost and savings
Voltage selection Water treatment Zone controls

In addition to these basic checklists, the sections below deal with individual equipment to serve as a
quick and handy reference, aimed primarily at shop floor personnel.
Burners
1. Right burner nozzle for given turndown ratio
2. No vapor or gases present before light up
3. Establish air supply before oil supply
4. Drain cold air before start up
5. Correct oil temperature at burner tip
6. Correct air pressure for LAP burners
7. Check oil leaks near burner
8. Flame centering with no impingement
9. Adjust flame length
10. Adjust burners and damper for 13% carbon dioxide and brown smoke.
11. Close oil line before shutting off air blower.
Boilers and Steam – Generation, Distribution & Utilization
Generation:
1. Proper selection of burners and stokers.
2. Correct temperature and pressure of fuel oil at burner tip
3. Reduce radiation losses by improved thermal insulation
4. Blow down and water process heat to preheat the boiler feed water
5. Critical scrutiny of steam and power within boiler house
6. Provision and maintenance of meters
7. Analyze flue gases for optimum gas levels
8. Uniform thickness of coal bed without segregation.
9. Waste heat recovery for heating feed water or combustion air
10. Schedule process operations to avoid fluctuations in boiler loads
11. Avoid excessive blow downs
12. Avoid air infiltration and gas ex-filtration.
13. Prevent excessive scale formation on heat transfer surfaces
14. Adjust speed, feed and air supply to stabilize flame
15. Reduce un burnt ash in coal-firing and ensure adequate soot blowing
16. Prevent flame from impinging upon surface.
Distribution:
1. Size pipelines for maximum expected loads, and avoid circuitous pipelines
2. Replace sharp elbows with long radius bends and Ts with smooth Y’s
3. Slope pipes towards receiving end with provision for condensate removal
4. Rectify pipe sag periodically and isolate steam lines not in use.

Utilization:
1. Keep pressure as low as possible
2. Lag and water proof all piping and valves
3. Inspect main valves and traps for leaks
4. Avoid backpressure on steam traps
5. Ensure air removal from heated process vessels
6. Maintain process steam dry and saturated
7. Keep heat exchanger surfaces clean.
Condensate Recovery:
1. Avoid group trapping and design traps for startup loads
2. Drain contaminated condensate insulate all condensate-return lines
3. Investigate feasibility of flash steam recovery for high pressures
4. Provide instrumentation to prevent over flows from collecting tanks
Electrical Systems:
Sub-Stations and Transformers:
1. Locate sub-station near load centre
2. Identify under loaded transformers and redistribute load
3. Operate identical transformers in parallel whenever required
4. Switch off idle transformers in cyclic rotation on primary
5. Switch off transformers and re-adjust load on holidays and power cuts
6. Use transformers with lower losses
7. Provide circuit breakers and dis-connectors to transformers
8. Adopt split bus system to allow flexibility of operation
9. Provide instruments for monitoring performance of individual transformers
10. Provide a separate lighting transformer
11. Monitor tap positions of distribution transformers and re-adjust as required
12. Select power transformers with OLTC and auto control
13. Load bus bar parallel paths in the sub stations equitably.
Load management and power factor improvement:
1. Incorporate maximum demand alarm
2. Transfer operation of high unit loads judiciously
3. Flatten the load curve and maintain a high load factor
4. Avoid starting and stopping of high HP motors simultaneously
5. Stagger timings for working of machines and recess
6. Avoid idle running of machines
7. Make optimal use of storage facilities
8. Provide programmable timer controls for exhaust fans in cascade
9. Install capacitors with plastron control and low dielectric losses

10. Assess average and peak load power factors and redesign capacitors
11. Maintain peak load power factor around 0.95
12. Balance capacitor as per load
13. Inform power house before switching on heavy loads.
Distribution system:
1. Minimize LT distribution by increasing HT distribution system
2. Provide ring main system for HT & LT distribution system
3. Provide parallel paths and multiple runs of cable
4. Draw balanced circuits from secondary of distribution transformers
5. Check cable size and current carrying capacity
6. Redistribute loads to avoid circuitous feeding
7. Ensure equitable distribution of loads on available parallel paths
8. Install separate distribution switchboards for power and lighting circuits
9. Replace old paper cables with new PVC/XLP cables
10. Balance loads on all three phases within + 1%
11. Install capacitors near load points or at sub distribution board
Electric Drives
Motors:
1. Avoid under-loading
2. Choose motor size to match load
3. Use highest possible motor speed.
4. Motor loss increases from voltage imbalance.
5. Use a high efficiency motor instead of a standard induction motor
6. Replace rewound motors by standard motors if required
7. Switch off idle motors. In certain cases use automatic control
8. Use variable speed motor if process requires varying conditions
9. Use DC variable frequency drives instead of slip motors
10. Use soft starters with energy saver for high starting torque
11. For two-speed applications use high efficiency motors
12. Avoid loose or excessively tight ‘V’ belts.
13. Lubricate bearings regularly
14. Adopt misalignment of equipment, frozen bearing and belt drag.
Motor drive installations:
1. Connect appropriately rated capacitors across motor terminals
2. Choose capacitors of higher voltage rating than the supply voltage
3. For heavy duty Y-∆ installation, start motor preferably with contactor
4. Check voltage at points of use
5. Optimize operation with automatic controls

6. Use adjustable timers in batch and short run operations

7. Avoid idle running or under load run of conveyors
8. Avoid oversized equipment
9. Limit plugging and reversing of motors
10. Replace stalling torque drives with hydraulic cylinders/fluid couplings
Lighting system
1. Maximize use of natural lighting by lighter walls and surfaces
2. Use day lighting effectively
3. Avoid use of incandescent/tungsten filament lamps
4. Use electronic ballast instead of conventional chokes
5. Localized or task lighting consume less energy
6. Evaluate and revise lighting maintenance program
7. Clean luminaries, ceilings, walls etc., on a regular schedule.
8. Install local switching and dimmer controls for flexibility
9. Consider photocells and time clocks for turning exterior lights on and off
10. Install selective switching of luminaries’
Compressed air system
1. Locate and repair all leaks
2. Keep nozzles and valves in good condition and inspect regularly
3. Minimize ‘No-load’ operation
4. Consider change-over to smaller compressor if required
5. Ensure cold and dry air intake
6. Clean air inlet filters regularly
7. Install manometers across filter and monitor pressure drop
8. Ensure cleaning of fouled inter coolers
9. Use regenerative air dryers
10. Use FAD test to check operating capacity and leaks
11. Examine waste heat recovery and use
12. Minimize cooling tower fan consumption with control circuit
13. Monitor cooling water temperature and quality
14. Consider two or multistage compressors
15. Reduce compressor delivery pressure wherever possible
16. Provide extra air receivers at points of high periodic air demand
17. Retrofit modern speed regulation controllers in big compressors
18. Operate solenoid valves fixed in cycle punch press blow off nozzles
19. Optimize automatic electronic moisture drain trap timings
20. Periodically adjust tension in drive belts
21. Replace V-belts with modern flat belts

22. Lubricate all pneumatic equipment properly

23. Discourage misuse of compressed air for body cleaning
24. Operate pneumatic equipment at recommended pressure
25. Replace pneumatic instrumentation by electronic instrumentation
26. Check manual drains to prevent condensate build up
27. Check safety valves to prevent excessive pressure and wear
28. Check for air leakage in by-pass valves of reservoirs
29. Use delay timers to limit number of motor starts
30. Operate blow guns for clearing swarf or moisture at low pressure
31. Check lubricating oil consumption
32. Check pH of inter-cooler condensate for acidity
33. Check excessive vibration
Refrigeration
1. Reduce display lighting on refrigerated cases
2. Set thermostats to higher temperatures, if possible
3. Load freezers immediately after receipt of product
4. Control moisture sources to reduce defrost cycling
5. Minimize door opening and infiltration
6. Clean filters, heat exchangers and ducts regularly
7. Identify excessive demand and components with low efficiency
8. Check air inlets
9. Check and analyze summer heat production
10. Shut off air-conditioning in unoccupied areas
11. Eliminate unnecessary exhaust hoods and roof ventilators
12. Avoid artificial cooling where not needed
13. Minimize operating time in areas with varying occupancy
14. Eliminate artificial ventilation where air quality, noise, loads permit
15. Check possibility for intermittent use of AC system
16. Maintain required temperatures
17. Avoid infiltration of outside air and dust
18. Use sunshades optimally. Install glass or double paned glass
19. Use chilled water temperature at highest possible level
20. Check seals for oil leaks
21. Improve controls on refrigeration system
22. Install automatic shut off for fans on cooling towers
23. Install time switches for shutdown, start-up and part load operating
24. Change air paths to reduce airflow rates
25. Explore two-stage cooling, with cooling tower water and then chiller water.

ENERGY AUDIT OF INDUSTRIES

The manufacturing industry in India, accounts for over 50% of total commercial energy used
in the country. Across the world, industry consumes about 1/3 of all natural energy sources. Hence, it
is very important to concentrate on conserving energy in the industrial sector.
Normally electricity and HSD are the main energy sources to any industry. Electricity is used
for driving motors of air compressors, refrigeration compressors, pumps, fans, blowers, machinery,
welding sets and lighting. HSD is used for running DG sets, which are used in case of power failure
from the grid. Electricity may also be used for heating and drying ovens etc. and for other
applications. Some industries use coal, bagasse, rice husk etc. mainly for steam generation.
The major energy consuming equipment/systems in a typical industry are listed below:
• Electrical systems
• Electric drives
• Steams system
• Furnaces
• Compressed Air System
• Air Conditioning & Refrigeration
• Pumping systems
• Cooling Towers
• Fans and Blowers
• Lighting System
• Diesel Generating Sets
Brief scope of energy conservation in the above equipment/system is given below
Electrical Systems
The scope in Electrical System comprises of transformer loading practices, Power Factor
Management, analysis/optimizing Voltage levels, Distribution losses and Harmonic levels. A
specific observation on daily load curve for possibility of further suppression of demand especially
during peak load hours will be looked into.
Electric Drives
Following recommendations could be made based on actual measurements and analysis
• Proper sizing of motor
• Use of energy efficient motor by replacing oversized and less efficient motors
• Retrofitting inverters or soft-starters
• Re-shuffing of motors as per loading
• Possibility of operating motors in star mode wherever motors are under-loaded
• Reactive power compensation for motors
Steam System

An in-depth study of steam system covering steam generation, distribution and utilization would
cover the following:
• Efficiency evaluation of boiler by indirect heat loss method
• Optimum steam generating pressure
• Quantification of steam leakages
• Steam trap survey
• Insulation aspects including insulation surveys
• Optimization of steam utilization
• End use equipment (generally, heat transfer equipment, viz. driers, etc.)
• Alternate (cheaper) fuels for combustion.

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Energy Auditing & Demand Side Management Energy Auditing

Definition & Objectives of Energy Management

P.SURESH BABU, AITS, RAJAMPET 25

Common Units and Measurements

Decimal fractions and multiples

S. No. Prefix Fraction Symbol

1 Micron: 10-6 m or 10-3 mm

P.SURESH BABU, AITS, RAJAMPET 26

Work is defined as force acting over a distance.

Power is defined as rate of work done and is expressed in watts.

2.1. ENERGY AUDIT

P.SURESH BABU, AITS, RAJAMPET 27

2.2. DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS

2. To ascertain the optimized energy data

3. To determine the availability or energy/production data

5. To prepare energy and process flow diagrams for the site

2.3. TYPES OF PLANT ENERGY STUDIES

P.SURESH BABU, AITS, RAJAMPET 28

2.3.1. Preliminary Energy Audit (PEA) / House Keeping Practices

Experience of the auditor Availability and completeness of data

Physical size of the facility Depth of analysis of available data

Broadly, the audit is carried out in six steps:-

P.SURESH BABU, AITS, RAJAMPET 29

P.SURESH BABU, AITS, RAJAMPET 30

2.3.1.1. Preliminary Energy Audit Methodology

2.3.2. Detailed Energy Audit (DEA)

P.SURESH BABU, AITS, RAJAMPET 31

Ten steps methodology for DEA

P.SURESH BABU, AITS, RAJAMPET 32

• Review the previous ideas suggested by energy

2.4. ENERGY CONSUMPTION MONITORING

2.4.1. Energy index

P.SURESH BABU, AITS, RAJAMPET 33

total energy consumption

Energy type Consumption Energy Energy (J) Energy (Wh)

P.SURESH BABU, AITS, RAJAMPET 34

Percentage Energy Balance

Energy form Percentage

2.4.2. Cost Index

total cost of energy

Energy type Consumption Costs (Rs.)

P.SURESH BABU, AITS, RAJAMPET 35

Total cost index = 134.1*103 / 15*103 (tons) = Rs. 8.9/ton

2.5. REPRESENTATION OF CONSUMPTION

2.5.1. Pie chart

Gas Oil Electricity

Consequently, the angles occupied by the segment are:

P.SURESH BABU, AITS, RAJAMPET 36

Gas = (500*103 /2100*103 )*360 = 860

Office heating Lighting Boiler house Process

2.5.2. Sankey diagram

P.SURESH BABU, AITS, RAJAMPET 37

Boilers Office Power Lighting

Energy Inputs: Oil, Gas, Electricity are represented in left side

losses which one never knew existed.

2.6. LOAD PROFILES (HISTOGRAM)

P.SURESH BABU, AITS, RAJAMPET 38

Monthly Load Profile (kw) for electricity

Monthly Load Profile (kw) for gas usage

Total cost index = 134.1103 / 15103 (tons) = Rs. 8.9/ton

Gas = (500103 /2100103 )*360 = 860

Summary (Following is not in syllabus)