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17 September 2022
Motors: Operations and Maintenance and Best Practices
“I accept responsibility for my role in ensuring the integrity of the work submitted by the group in
which I participated.”
Group No.: 9
Member:
Portilla, Leonel
Table of Contents
EE400 – EE41S1– S. Y. 2022-2023 MG1 2
Motors: Operations and Maintenance and Best Practices
I. Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………4
I.1 Working Principles………………………………………………………………………...4
I.2 Magnetic Field……………………………………………………………………………..5
I.3 Electromagnetism………………………………………………………………………….5
I.4 Types of Motors…………………………………………………………………………...6
I.4.1 DC Motor……………………………………………………………………...6
a. Brushed DC motor…………………………………………………….7
b. Brushless DC motor…………………………………………………...7
I.4.2 AC Motor……………………………………………………………………...8
a. Induction motor…………………………………………………
b. Synchronous motor…………………………………………………
I.5 Key Components…………………………………………………………………
I.5.1 DC Motor……………………………………………………………………
a. Pole…………………………………………………………
b. Armature……………………………………………………………
c. Commutator…………………………………………………………
I.5.2 AC Motor……………………………………………………………………
a. Rotor………………………………………………………………
b. Stator…………………………………………………………………
I.6 Safety Issues…………………………………………………………………………….
I.7 Cost and Energy Efficiency……………………………………………………………..
I.8 Maintenance of Motors…………………………………………………………………
I.9 Diagnostic Equipment…………………………………………………………………
I.9.1 Thermography……………………………………………………………
I.9.2 Ultrasonic Analyzer…………………………………………………………..
I.9.3 Vibration Analyzer……………………………………………………………
I.10 Available Software Tools…………………………………………………………….
I.10.1 MotorMaster+………………………………………………………………
I.11 Relevant Operational Energy Efficient Measures……………………………………
I.11.1 Replace standard motors with energy efficient motors………………….
I.11.2 Sizing to variable load…………………………………………………………
I.11.3 Improving power quality……………………………………………………
I.11.4 Improving maintenance……………………………………………………….
I.11.5 A checklist of good……………………………………………………
I.11.6 Multi-speed motors……………………………………………………………
I.11.7 Variable speed drives (VSDs)………………………………………………
I.12 Electric Motors Checklist………………………………………………………
I.13 Energy Audit…………………………………………………………………………
I.13.1 What is a Motor Energy Audit?...............................................................
I.13.2 Relevant Tools…………………………………………………………………
I.13.3 Energy audit planning…………………………………………………..
I.13.4 Opening meeting & Data collection………………………………………..
I.13.5 Measurement plan………………………………………………………..
I.13.6 Data-Analysis………………………………………………………..
I.13.7 Energy Audit reporting………………………………………………..
I.13.8 Closing meeting…………………………………………………………..
II. Abbreviation…………………………………………………………………………………….
III. Definition of Terms…………………………………………………………………………
IV. Report Content…………………………………………………………………………………
V. Reference…………………………………………………………………………………
I. Introduction
Motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most
electric motors operate through the interaction between the motor's magnetic field and electric
current in a wire winding to generate force in the form of torque applied on the motor's shaft.
An electric generator is mechanically identical to an electric motor, but operates with a reversed
flow of power, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. Motor systems consume
about 70% of all the electric energy used in the manufacturing sector of the United States. To
date, most public and private programs to improve motor system energy efficiency have focused
on the motor component. This is primarily due to the complexity associated with motor-driven
equipment and the system as a whole.
The electric motor itself, however, is only the core component of a much broader system of
electrical and mechanical equipment that provides a service. Numerous studies have shown that
opportunities for efficiency improvement and performance optimization are actually much
greater in the other components of the system-the controller, the mechanical system coupling,
the driven equipment, and the interaction with the process operation. Despite these significant
system-level opportunities, most efficiency improvement activities or programs have focused on
the motor component or other individual components.
I.3 Electromagnetism
1.4.1 DC Motor
Figure 4 DC motor
One of the advantages of DC motors over other types of motors is their ability to
precisely adjust their speed, which is essential for industrial machines. DC motors
can start, stop, and reverse instantly, which is critical for managing the operation
of manufacturing equipment.
1. Brushed DC motor
2. Brushless DC motor
Brushless direct current motors are made up of a permanent magnet rotor and
a coil wrapped stator. Brushes are not required in this DC motor design. The
benefit of a brushless DC motor is that it eliminates brush wear and tear since
the moving magnet produces very little heat. Brushless DC motors are costlier
due to their efficiency.
1.4.2 AC motor
An alternating current motor (AC motor) is a type of electric motor that comprises
of a stator and a coil that is powered by alternating current to transform electric
current into mechanical power. The stator is the motor's fixed component, while
the rotor is its revolving component. Single-phase or three-phase AC motors are
available, with three-phase motors mostly utilized for bulk power conversion.
Single phase alternating current motors are utilized for low-power conversions.
Figure 8 Ac motor
1. Induction Motor
Induction Motor
Figure 10 Induction motor
When the rotor circuit is closed, current flows through the rotor winding and
reacts with the spinning flux, producing torque. The rotor rotates at a speed
extremely near to synchronous speed in the steady condition.
2. Synchronous motor
Synchronous Motor
Figure 11 Synchronous motor
1. Field Poles
The magnetic poles of a DC motor are screwed into the inside wall of the
yoke. Magnetic poles are made up of two pieces. The pole core and pole shoe
are piled together under hydraulic pressure and then joined to the yoke. The
pole core has a limited cross-sectional area and serves just to keep the pole
shoe over the yoke, whereas the pole shoe has a relatively greater cross-
sectional area and spreads the flux produced over the air gap between the
stator and rotor to decrease reluctance loss. The pole shoe also has slots for the
field windings that generate the field flux.
2. Armature
The armature winding of a DC motor is connected to the rotor, or the spinning
portion of the machine, and as a result is subjected to a changing magnetic
field in the route of its revolution, resulting in magnetic losses. As a result, the
rotor is built of an armature core consisting of numerous low-hysteresis silicon
steel laminations to decrease magnetic losses such as hysteresis and eddy
current loss. The cylindrical structure of the armature core is formed by
stacking these laminated steel sheets together.
3. Commutator
The commutator of a direct current motor is a cylindrical construction
comprised of copper segments stacked together but separated by mica. As far
as the DC motor is concerned, its primary duty is to commute or relay the
supply current from the mains to the armature winding housed over a spinning
structure via the brushes of the DC motor.
Figure 14 Commutator
1.5.2 AC motor
1. Rotor
Unlike a DC motor, the rotor of an AC motor is not connected to any external
power source. It gets its energy from the stator. The rotor of a three phase
induction motor can be squirrel cage or wound.
a. Induction Motor
The rotor in the squirrel cage variant is made up of rotor bars with end
rings at both ends. The squirrel cage rotor is available in split phase,
capacitor start, capacitor start and run, permanent split phase capacitor
run, and shaded pole configurations with A, B, C, D, and E classes.
The squirrel cage is almost often composed of aluminum or copper.
The rotor bars interact with the electromagnetic field of the stator
during squirrel cage motor operation (EMF). As the current fluctuates,
so does the EMF, forcing the rotor to revolve and generate rotational
motion. The rotor does not revolve at the same frequency as the AC
current and is continually attempting to catch up, which is how the
rotation is created. If the frequencies were the same, the rotor would
freeze and there would be no motion.
b. Synchronous Motor
The primary distinction between synchronous and induction motors.
The rotor of a synchronous motor moves at the same speed as the
revolving magnetic field of an induction motor. This is achievable
because the magnetic field of the rotor is no longer generated. When
met with another magnetic field, the rotor's permanent magnets or DC-
excited currents are forced to lock into a specific position.
2. Stator
A revolving magnetic field is produced by the stator. It features a solid metal
axle, a wire loop, coils, a squirrel cage, and connectors. Though squirrel cages
are not present in all AC motors, they are the most frequent. Electricity is sent
directly to the stator's outer coils in alternating current motors. The stator is
made up of numerous plates connected by copper magnetic wire that stretch
out from its center.
Figure 18 Stator
a. Induction Motor
The stator has the same number of poles as the rotor and is powered by
a three-phase alternating current source. The three-phase alternating
current source generates a revolving magnetic field in the stator.
Motors can be purchased for varying application areas such as for operating in a
potentially gaseous or explosive area. When purchasing a motor, be sure to check the
classification of the area, you may have a motor that does not meet the classification it
is presently in.
Electric motors are a major driving force in many industries. Their compact size and
versatile application potentials make them a necessity. Motors are chosen many times
because of the low vibration characteristics in driving equipment and of the potential
extended life of the driven equipment. The higher rpm and small size of a motor will
also make it a perfect fit for many applications. These were developed because of the
chemical plant setting in which highly corrosive atmospheres were deteriorating steel
housings. They are, for the most part, the same motors but have an epoxy or
equivalent coating.
1.7 Cost and Energy Efficiency
An electric motor performs efficiently only when it is maintained and used properly.
Electric motor efficiencies vary with motor load, the efficiency of a constant speed
motor decreases as motor load decreases. Below are some general guidelines for the
efficient operations of electric motors.
a. Sizing motors is important – Do not assume an existing motor is properly sized for
its load, especially when replacing motors. Many motors operate most efficiently
at 75% to 85% of full load rating. Under-sizing or over-sizing reduces efficiency.
For large motors, facility managers may want to seek professional help in
determining the proper sizes and actual loadings of existing motors. There are
several ways to estimate actual motor loading: the kilowatt technique, the
amperage ratio technique, and the less reliable slip technique.
Preventative and predictive maintenance programs for motors are effective practices in
manufacturing plants. These maintenance procedures involve a sequence of steps plant
personnel use to prolong motor life or foresee a motor failure. The best safeguard against
thermal damage is avoiding conditions that contribute to overheating. These include dirt,
under and over-voltage, voltage unbalance, harmonics, high ambient temperature, poor
ventilation, and overload operation.
Figure 22 Thermography
Electric motor systems emit very distinct sound patterns around bearings. In most
cases, these sounds are not audible to the unaided ear or are drown-out by other
equipment noises. Using an ultrasonic detector, the analyst is able to isolate the
frequency of sound being emitted by the bearing. Changes in these ultrasonic
wave emissions are indicative of changes in equipment condition-some of these
changes can be a precursor to component degradation and failure.
The biggest risk is overheating of the motor, which adversely affects the motor
life and efficiency and increases operating costs. Proper sizing is a crucial aspect
of motor selection. If a motor is undersized, it will not be able to control the load,
leading to overshoot and ringing. If the motor is oversized, it may control the load
but it will also be larger and heavier, as well as more expensive in terms of price
and cost of operations.
Voltage unbalance can be even more detrimental to motor performance and occurs
when the voltages in the three phases of a three-phase motor are not equal. Good
power quality saves money and energy. Direct savings to consumers come from
lower energy cost and reactive power tariffs. Indirect savings are gained by
avoiding circumstances such as damage and premature aging of equipment, loss of
production or loss of data and work.
Most motor cores are manufactured from silicon steel or de-carbonized cold-rolled
steel, the electrical properties of which do not change measurably with age.
However, poor maintenance can cause deterioration in motor efficiency over time
and lead to unreliable operation. For example, improper lubrication can cause
increased friction in both the motor and associated drive transmission equipment.
Resistance losses in the motor, which rise with temperature, would increase.
a. Inspect motors regularly for wear in bearings and housings (to reduce
frictional losses) and for dirt/dust in motor ventilating ducts (to ensure proper
heat dissipation.
b. Check load conditions to ensure that the motor is not over or under loaded. A
change in motor load from the last test indicates a change in the driven load,
the cause of which should be understood.
c. Lubricate their motors. Inadequate lubrication can cause problems. Over
lubrication can also create problems, e.g. excess oil or grease from the motor
bearings can enter the motor and saturate the motor insulation, causing
premature failure or creating a fire risk.
d. Check periodically for proper alignment of the motor and the driven
equipment. Improper alignment can cause shafts and bearings to wear quickly,
resulting in damage to both the motor and the driven equipment.
e. Ensure that supply wiring and terminal box are properly sized and installed.
Inspect regularly the connections at the motor and starter to be sure that they
are clean and tight.
f. Provide adequate ventilation and keep motor cooling ducts clean to help
dissipate heat to reduce excessive losses. The life of the insulation in the motor
would also be longer: for every 10°C increase in motor operating temperature
over the recommended peak, the time before rewinding would be needed is
estimated to be halved.
Motors can be wound such that two speeds, in the ratio of 2:1, can be obtained.
Motors can also be wound with two separate windings, each giving two operating
speeds and thus a total of four speeds. Multi-speed motors can be designed for
applications involving constant torque, variable torque, or for constant output
power. Multi-speed motors are suitable for applications that require limited speed
control (two or four fixed speeds instead of continuously variable speed). These
motors tend to be very economical as their efficiency is lower compared to single-
speed motors.
They are designed to operate standard induction motors and can therefore be
easily installed in an existing system. They are designed to operate standard
induction motors and can therefore be easily installed in an existing system.
Maintenance Frequency
Description Comments
Daily Weekly Monthl Annually
y
Motor Turn off/sequence
use/sequencing unnecessary motors
Tighten connection
Check terminal terminals as necessary
tightness
Numerous analysis- and calculation tools have been created globally to aid the
work of energy auditors. It is essential to choose the required tools before
explaining and putting the various tools in the audit technique. The following
factors form the basis of the tool selection process: The following tools have been
selected according to the above mentioned criteria.
1. SOTEA
In one factory, the efficiency potential of motor systems is evaluated using
SOTEA ("Software Tool for Efficient Drives"). The industrial user is intended
to receive an approximate estimate of the amount that might be saved, which
mostly depends on the age of the existing motor stock.
2. ILI+
A list of motors is created using ILI (Intelligent Motor List). For refit, the
motors with the largest potential for savings might be chosen. The tool's
"Decision Maker" assists the users and discovers a small number of motors
that account for a large portion of the potential savings.
3. STR
The STR (Standard Test Report) is a standardized form for a motor system
analysis process that aids in summarizing test findings and suggesting motor
system efficiency measurers along with the anticipated expenses and savings.
4. EMSA
The Electric Motor System Annex of the International Energy Agency (IEA-
4E) created the Motor System Tool to determine the efficiency of a whole
motor system (motor plus VFD, gear and transmission). It aims to support
engineers, machine builders, machine component suppliers, energy
consultants, and others engaged in machine system optimization for the
purpose of achieving lower power usage.
1.13.3 Phase one - Energy audit planning
The first stage of the technique for an energy audit of systems that use motors is
the scheduling an energy assessment. In this stage, the audited firm and the energy
auditor are tasked for creating and defining the energy audit's parameters. This
chapter assists energy auditors in providing prompt, accurate answers to the
inquiries. In the first meeting, further queries will be covered. The planning stage
of an energy audit may be divided into two distinct sections.
a. Gathering general information on the company/factory/business
The energy auditor should compile broad data on the company. Due to
the wide range and lack of definition in the questions that should be
asked, this is not usually particularly simple. A checklist has thus been
created to assist the energy auditor in his task.
Company Profile
Company name:
Address 1: Telephone:
Address 2: Fax:
City town: E-mail:
Region/country:
Post/zip code:
Electric motor system site address
Address 1:
Address 2:
City/town:
Region/country :
Post/zip code:
In which industrial sector:
Food Textile/- Wood/paper/ Chemical- Rubber
clothing print /Pharma and
industry plastic
products
Mechanical Auto-motive Electrical Glas/stone/ Supply/
Engineering industry engineering/ earth disposal
/metal electronics
construction
Power Building Basic materials industry
engineering technology
For what the electric motor systems are used?
------------------------------------------------------------------
Number of employees
-------------------------------------------------------
How many shifts there are?
-----------------------------------------------------
Working time
Weekday Time Weekday Time
Mon
Tue
Wed
Thurs
……… annual operating hours
Contact person
Name:
Function:
Address:
Phone:
The majority of the data for the aforementioned Table should be able
to be entered by the Energy Auditor by himself. If there is still
information missing, a brief phone call to the relevant firm should give
prompt assistance to finish the check list.
b. Pre-Screening (estimation of energy saving potential related to
electric motor systems)
The prescreening, which reveals if an audit is necessary in the area of
electric motor systems, is one of the most important phases of an
energy audit's planning phase. Calculations and extra technical and
financial information are needed in order to assess the company's
electrical motor systems' potential for energy savings. Energy auditors
can thus benefit from "SOTEA," a free software application created by
topmotors.ch, in regards to this topic. It is possible to assess whether
the firm needs an electric motor energy audit by inputting pertinent
data into the application.
1. Opening Meeting
The opening meeting between the corporate representative and the energy
auditor should take place in person. The energy auditor should notify those
who are interested in the energy-saving potential of electric motor systems, the
audit scope that has to be further defined, boundaries, and techniques, as well
as the site safety inductions, in this stage.
a. Invite right representatives to the opening meeting
b. Preparation of documents for the meeting
c. Convince the top-management
d. Define scope, boundaries and methods of the energy audit
e. Assign personnel to assist the energy auditor
f. Ensure the cooperation of the affected parties
g. Confirm any unusual conditions
h. Arrangements for access
i. Requirements for health, safety and security
j. Availability of financial resources
k. Requirements and procedures to be followed for installation of
measuring equipment
l. An action plan for the assessment shall be developed
m. Agreed by the assessment team and top-management
2. Data collection
The opening meeting's time spent on site can immediately be put to use to
begin the data collecting. The primary benefit of collecting data early is that
fewer meetings need to be scheduled in order to do it.
Data collection
Electric Motors
Thereof:
Part load________ %
Full load ________ %
Table 7 Recommended measurement methods and equipment for motor driven systems
The "Standard Test Report" is another instrument that may help the energy
auditor with their examination of energy. This tool is used to consistently
document the current and desired states of motor-driven systems (both
before and after the application of improvement strategies). In the
following paragraph the main function and features of the STR-tool will be
described.
i. Detailed description of the actual state of the electric motor driven
system.
ii. Results of electrical load measurement
iii. Rough costs of the individual energy improvement measures
iv. Calculation of the energy demand of the total system in the actual and
the target status
v. Box for additional explanations
The STR-fundamental Tool's purpose may be summed up as follows:
The Excel application can assist the energy auditor in gathering the
appropriate motor system data and in doing a system and component
efficiency analysis. Additionally, the software can calculate the expenses
of the entire motor system in both the existing and the desired states, and
the energy auditor may simulate various energy-saving techniques.
1. Executive summary:
An overview of the whole energy audit procedure will be given in the executive
summary. Because the management will read the executive summary first, it is
advised to keep the summary to the essentials and to stress the financial benefits.
2. Introduction and facility information:
This section of the report should include a brief description of the background, the
team and scope of the electric motor audit.
3. Description of system(s) studied in assessment and significant system issues
The report shall include a detailed description of the specific motor systems on
which the assessment was performed. Depending on the system assessed, the
discussion of system operation can be extensive and should be supported by
graphs, tables and system schematics.
4. Assessment data collection and measurements:
Key facility people must be identified and interviewed, data must be collected,
and measurements must be conducted. A summary of the measurement strategy
must also be provided. Include the following pertinent information:
a. Definition of system requirements and a determination of how system
b. Operation changes during the year (drawings, system process data)
c. Electrical energy consumption data
d. Other specific data relating to the motor driven systems such as pump
e. Total head, specific fan power, working pressure, flow, etc.
f. Determination of operating hours of the motor systems
g. Performance information of the motor system when available
h. Measurement or estimation of system losses
5. Data Analysis
The report ought to include notice of the findings of the measurements and data
analysis. Documentation must be kept for all major analytical techniques,
measurements, observations, and conclusions from data analysis of accomplished
action items.
following recommended practices, and guides that are used by both manufacturers
and users such as:
a. IEEE 43-2000: insulation resistance and polarization index (new and aged
windings);
b. IEEE 56-1977: ac hipot tests (aged windings);
c. IEEE 95-2002: dc hipot tests (new and aged windings);
d. IEEE 286-2000: power factor (PF) tip-up tests (new and aged windings);
e. IEEE 522-2004: hipot tests for turn insulation (new and aged windings);
f. IEEE 1434-2000: partial discharge (PD) tests (new and aged windings).
Nearly half (48 percent) of all motor failures are due to electrical issues,
according to a survey by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). Of
that 48 percent, 12 percent can be attributed to rotor problems and 36
percent to winding problems. To help mitigate these failures, a variety of
motor tests can be performed on electric motors. Some of the most
common include:
i. Electric Motor Impulse Testing: Testing helps you understand
how an electrical system can withstand sudden overvoltage
caused by weather (lightning strikes), regular duty situations
like when low- or high-voltage equipment changes operations,
or high-voltage variations in AC-DC inverter output.
ii. Insulation Resistance Testing: With electric motor insulation,
as temperature increases, resistance decreases. This is known as
a negative temperature coefficient. Testing the insulation helps
ensure the insulation resistance of a de-energized motor
decreases after starting the motor. It's not uncommon for the
temperature to increase initially as moisture evaporates from
the increasing temperature of the windings. Insulation
resistance testing needs a temperature rectification to 104
degrees Fahrenheit (40 Celsius), according to the IEEE 43
standard. (Applicable Standard: IEEE Std 43-2000)
iii. HiPot Test: Short for "high potential," a HiPot test checks for
good isolation or that no current flows from one point to
another point. Think of this as the opposite of a continuity test
(where current flows easily from one point to another). The
HiPot test verifies that insulation is adequate for the regularly
occurring over-voltage transient. This test is ideal for
identifying things like nicked or crushed insulation, stray wires,
braided shielding, conductive or corrosive contaminants, and
spacing problems, among others. (Applicable Standard: IEEE
Std 56-1977 & IEEE Std 95-2002)
e. IEEE 522-2004: hipot tests for turn insulation (new and aged
windings)
The purpose of this guide is to make suggestions on testing the dielectric
strength of the insulation separating the various turns from each other
within multiturn form-wound coils to determine the acceptability of the
coils. Typical ratings of machines employing such coils normally lie
within the range of 200 kW to 100 MW. Test voltage levels described
herein do not evaluate the ability of the turn insulation to withstand
abnormal voltage surges, as contrasted to surges associated with normal
operation.
f. IEEE 1434-2000: partial discharge (PD) tests (new and aged windings)
This guide discusses both on-line and off-line partial discharge (PD)
measurements on complete windings of any type, as well as measurements
on individual form-wound coils and bars. Measurements selected from
those that are outlined may be appropriate for application during the
manufacture, installation, operation, and maintenance of windings of ac
rotating machinery.
II. Abbreviations
AC - Alternating Current
DC - Direct Current
EM - Electric Motor
Hp - Horse Power
Hz - Hertz
kW - Kilowatts
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