STANDARD

ISA–71.04–1985
Formerly ISA–S71.04–1985

Environmental Conditions
for Process Measurement
and Control Systems:
Airborne Contaminants

NOTICE OF COPYRIGHT
This is a copyrighted document and may not be copied or distributed in any
form or manner without the permission of ISA. This copy of the document was
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copyright will be prosecuted to the fullest extent of the law and may result in
substantial civil and criminal penalties.

Approved 3 February 1986

TM

ISA–The Instrumentation,
Systems, and
Automation Society
ISA-71.04-1985, Environmental Conditions for Process Measurement and Control Systems:
Airborne Contaminants

ISBN 0-87664-895-2

Copyright Ë 1985 by the Instrument Society of America. All rights reserved. Printed in the United
States of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise), without the prior written permission of the publisher.

ISA
67 Alexander Drive
P.O. Box 12277
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709
Preface

This preface is included for informational purposes and is not part of ISA-71.04-1985.
This standard has been prepared as part of the service in the ISA toward a goal of uniformity in
the field of instrumentation. To be of real value, this document should not be static, but should be
subject to periodic review. Toward this end, the Society welcomes all comments and criticisms,
and asks that they be addressed to the Secretary, Standards and Practices Board, ISA, 67
Alexander Drive, P.O. Box 12277, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, Telephone (919) 549-
8411, e-mail: standards@isa.org.
The ISA Standards and Practices Department is aware of the growing need for attention to the
metric system of units in general, and the International System of Units (SI) in particular, in the
preparation of instrumentation standards. The Department is further aware of the benefits to
U.S.A. users of ISA standards of incorporating suitable references to the SI (and the metric
system) in their business and professional dealings with other countries. Toward this end, this
Department will endeavor to introduce SI-acceptable metric units in all new and revised
standards to the greatest extent possible. The Metric Practice Guide, which has been published
by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers as ANSI/IEEE Std. 268-1982, and future
revisions will be the reference guide for definitions, symbols, abbreviations, and conversion
factors.
It is the policy of the ISA to encourage and welcome the participation of all concerned individuals
and interests in the development of ISA standards. Participation in the ISA standards-making
process by an individual in no way constitutes endorsement by the employer of that individual, of
the ISA, or of any of the standards that ISA develops.
The information contained in the preface, footnotes, and appendices is included for information
only and is not a part of the standard.
This document is one of several standards covering various environmental conditions affecting
process measurement and control systems. In developing this standard, the committee goals
included the following:
1) To provide a practical standard that can be applied with a minimum of research and
technical effort by the user.
2) To provide a concise method of stating environmental classifications for convenient
communication between users of the standard.
3) To cover real-world ranges of each classified parameter.
This standard is limited to airborne contaminants and biological influences only, covering
contamination influences that affect industrial process measurement and control systems.

The persons listed below served as members of ISA Committee SP71, which prepared this
standard.

NAME COMPANY

W. Holway, Chairman The Foxboro Company

D. Boyle Consultant

ISA-S71.04-1985 3
NAME COMPANY

D. Cummins Purafil, Inc.

J. Duffy Fisher Controls Company
K. Gulick Digital Equipment Corporation
M. Huza Circul-Aire Inc.
F. Kent Fischer and Porter Company
E. J. Laderoute The Foxboro Company
M. Lombardi Honeywell, Inc.
R. Magnuson Hewlett Packard
W. T. Mitchell Dow Chemical, USA
R. Prescott (Director) Moore Products
E. Rasmussen Fluor Engineers & Constructors, Inc.
W. T. Rhodes CONOCO, Inc.
R. H. Walton Exxon Company, USA

This standard was approved for publication by the ISA Standards and Practices Board in
February 1985.

NAME COMPANY

N. Conger, Chairman Fisher Controls Company

P. V. Bhat Monsanto Company
W. Calder III The Foxboro Company
R. S. Crowder Ship Star Associates
B. Feikle Bailey Controls Company
H. S. Hopkins Westinghouse Electric Company
J. L. Howard Boeing Aerospace Company
R. T. Jones Philadelphia Electric Company
R. Keller The Boeing Company
O. P. Lovett, Jr. ISIS Corporation
E. C. Magison Honeywell, Inc.
A. P. McCauley Chagrin Valley Controls Inc.
J. W. Mock Bechtel Corporation
E. M. Nesvig ERDCO Engineering Corporation
R. Prescott Moore Products Company
D. E. Rapley ISTS
C. W. Reimann National Bureau of Standards
J. Rennie Factory Mutual Research Corporation
W. C. Weidman Gilbert Commonwealth Inc.
K. Whitman Consultant
P. Bliss* Consultant
B. A. Christensen* Continental Oil Company
L. N. Combs* Retired
R. L. Galley* Consultant
T. J. Harrison* IBM Corporation
R. G. Marvin* Roy G. Marvin Company
W. B. Miller* Moore Products Company
G. Platt* Retired
J. R. Williams* Stearns Catalytic Corporation

*Director Emeritus

4 ISA-S71.04-1985
 Contents

1 Purpose .................................................................................................................................... 7

2 Scope ....................................................................................................................................... 7

3 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 7

4 Airborne contaminants — liquids ....................................................................................... 9

4.1 Liquids ............................................................................................................................ 9
4.2 Vapors ............................................................................................................................ 9
4.3 Aerosols.......................................................................................................................... 9
4.4 Sea salt mist ................................................................................................................... 9
4.5 General examples .......................................................................................................... 9

5 Airborne contaminants — solids ....................................................................................... 10

5.1 General ........................................................................................................................ 10
5.2 Particulate properties that affect equipment ................................................................ 10
5.3 Explanation of Table 2 ................................................................................................. 10

6 Airborne contaminants — gases ........................................................................................11

6.1 Reactivity ..................................................................................................................... 11
6.2 Contamination effects .................................................................................................. 11
6.3 Explanation of contaminant severity levels .................................................................. 13

7 Biological influences ............................................................................................................ 14

7.1 Biological influences .................................................................................................... 14

Appendices

A — Terminology ....................................................................................................................... 15
B — Section 1: Some common sources of reactive environmental constituents........................ 17
B — Section 2: Some common emissions of natural and industrial processes .......................... 18
C — Copper reactivity samples .................................................................................................. 19

ISA-S71.04-1985 5
1 Purpose

The purpose of this standard is to classify airborne contaminants that may affect process
measurement and control instruments.
The classification system provides users and manufacturers of instruments with a means of
specifying the type and concentration of airborne contaminants to which a specified instrument
may be exposed.
This document is one of a series of standards on environmental conditions for process
measurement and control systems.

2 Scope

2.1 This standard covers airborne contaminants and biological influences that affect industrial
process measurement and control equipment. Specifications for other environmental conditions,
including nuclear radiation and hazardous atmospheres, are beyond the scope of this standard.

2.2 This standard establishes airborne contaminant classes for fixed (non-mobile) installations
during normal operation (nonemergency conditions) or during transportation and storage.

2.3 The classes of environmental conditions stated in this standard are suitable for use in activities
related to process instrumentation, including design, manufacturing, sales, installation, test, use,
and maintenance. These classes may also be used as a guide when establishing requirements
for environmental control of buildings or other protective housings for industrial process measure-
ment and control systems.

2.4 These classifications pertain only to the environment external to the equipment which may
affect the equipment externally or internally.

2.5 The effects of environmental conditions on safety, comfort, and performance of operating and
maintenance personnel are not considered in this standard.

2.6 CAUTION — Airborne or biological contaminants not listed in this document could cause
equipment damage. Caution should be used when a combination of factors approach or surpass
class "X." Obtaining the guidance of a chemical specialist is suggested when this condition occurs.

3 Introduction

3.1 Environmental classifications have been established according to the type of contaminant.
Within each classification, severity levels have also been established. Parameter limit values are
tabulated for each classification and severity level of the contaminant. The classification consists
of a class contaminant letter followed by a severity identification numeral.

ISA-S71.04-1985 7
3.2 Some of these contaminants may appear in more than one form: i.e., gas, liquid, or solid. For
the purpose of this document, a particular contaminant will be classified in the form in which it most
often exists under ambient conditions.

3.3 The user or equipment manufacturer should specify the equipment performance in the stated
environmental class and severity level. It is possible to specify several sets of contaminant classes
and severity levels for the same equipment.

3.4 Chemical/temperature effects may cause the rates of destructive chemical reactions to more
than double for every 10°C increase in temperature.

3.5 High or variable relative humidity and contaminant mixtures may accelerate corrosive effects.
These concerns are addressed in Section 6 and Table 3.

3.6 Contaminants are listed as Class A, Class B, etc., or as Special Class X with increasing Severity
Levels 1, 2, 3, and X.
The contaminants are listed with a prefix of "L" for liquid, "G" for gas, and "S" for solids.
An example of table usage would be:

EXAMPLE
Suitable to operate for normal life in the following Airborne Contaminant Severity Levels:

Reference

Contaminant Concentration Class/ Table

Severity No.

Liquids: Trichloroethylene <5 µg/kg LA2 1

Oils <100 µg/kg LB3 1

Sea salt mist Within 0.5 km inland LC2 1

Solids: Particle size Concentration level

>1 mm <1000 µg/m3 SA1 2

100 to 1000 mm <3000 µg/m3 SB2 2

1 to 100 mm <350 µg/m3 SC3 2

<1 mm <350 µg/m3 SD3 2

Gases: Harsh: >2000 angstroms film formation on G3 3

exposed copper coupon after one
month exposure

8 ISA-S71.04-1985
4 Airborne contaminants — liquids

(Refer to Table 1)
4.1 Liquids — This refers to liquids that will corrode unprotected equipment. They are transported
to the equipment by condensation, rain, splashing liquids, or cleaning fluids sprayed from hoses.
The majority of these are not classified, but should be specified to the manufacturers of equipment
by special classification LX.
4.2 Vapors — Solvents sometimes occur as vapors, which may condense and form puddles that
become corrosive to instruments and controls.
4.3 Aerosols — Aerosols are liquids carried in gas or air in the form of small droplets generating
mists.
Aerosols can vary in composition and are a major source of chemical contamination to
equipment.
4.4 Sea salt mist (Refer to Table 1)
Example: Class LC1: Inland more than 0.5 km from shore
Class LC2: Inland less than 0.5 km from shore
Class LC3: Offshore installations (oil rigs, etc.)
4.5 General examples (Refer to Table 1)

Contaminant Contaminant Classes

Trichloroethylene LA2

Oils (engine rooms, compressor station) LB1

Specials (contaminant must be specified) LX3

Table 1 — Classification of chemically active contaminants: liquid aerosols

(measured in µg/kg except as specified)

Severity Severity Severity Severity

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level X
(special)

Contaminant Class Value Value Value Value

Vapors* LA < 1.0 < 5.0 < 20.0 › 20.0

Oils LB < 5.0 < 50.0 < 100.0 › 100.0

Sea salt mist LC More than Within Offshore T.B.S.

0.5 km 0.5 km installation
inland inland

Special T.B.S. LX T.B.S. T.B.S. T.B.S. T.B.S.

*For example, trichloroethylene (CHClCCl2)

NOTES: 1.0 µg/kg = 1.0 part per billion (p/109)

T.B.S. = To Be Specified
< is defined as "less than"
> is defined as "more than"
› is defined as "greater than or equal to"

ISA-S71.04-1985 9
5 Airborne contaminants — solids

(Refer to Table 2)

5.1 General
Dust is a universal contaminant and is a cause of environmentally induced equipment failures.
Failure modes may be mechanical, chemical, electrical, thermal, or magnetic. To maximize
equipment reliability and life, every effort should be made to minimize exposure to airborne
particulates. The sensitivity of control equipment to different types of particulates varies widely.
Some of the major effects are discussed in Section 5.2. Specifications should include a
description of these characteristic types of particulates if they are relevant. Particle size and
concentration classifications are given in Table 2.

5.2 Particulate properties that affect equipment

5.2.1 Magnetic permeability — Magnetically permeable substances can accumulate in magnetic
fields; for example, the movement of forcecoils or galvanometer movements can be severely
restricted or entirely demobilized by magnetic substances accumulating in air gaps of the perma-
nent magnets. Likewise, electrical motors can be seriously damaged by magnetic materials ac-
cumulating between rotor and stator.

5.2.2 Thermal conductivity — The thermal insulating properties of some solid particles can
cause overheating of cooling systems (which become insulated by surface deposits of these sub-
stances). For example, the cooling fins of power electronics can be seriously insulated by textile
fibers.

5.2.3 Electrical conductivity — Solid substances are divided into two groups, the good electrical
conductors and the highly insulating substances.
Electrical conductors — such as metals, carbon blacks, and coal dusts — can cause short
circuits when settling between terminals.
Insulating substances can accumulate static charges that upset the functioning of computers and
integrated circuits. Some insulators adsorb moisture under conditions of high relative humidity.
This causes an increase in conductivity and can result in equipment failures due to electrical
leakage.

5.2.4 Adhesiveness — This characteristic causes a contaminant to adhere to and accumulate

on surfaces. This intensifies undesirable effects such as thermal insulation, high voltage discharge,
and bearing failures. Adhesive qualities may be inherent to the contaminant, such as tobacco
smoke, which contains sticky tars.

5.2.5 Chemical — Airborne particulate matter varies from hard crystalline structures such as
metallic ores to soft porous structures such as atmospheric dust, fly ash, and smoke. Porous
particles with sizes less than one micrometer may adsorb gaseous contaminants and moisture.
This can cause equipment failure due to accelerated corrosion.

5.2.6 Abrasiveness — Abrasiveness is a significant factor in mechanical erosion by high velocity

solid contaminants. It also contributes to the accelerated wear of moving parts.

5.3 Explanation of Table 2

Solid particulates are classified by size. The environment should be described in terms of
concentration severity level for each class, Classes SA through SD.

10 ISA-S71.04-1985
 Table 2 — Classification of airborne particulates

Severity Level
(Concentration measured in µg/m3)

Particle Size Class 1 2 3 X

> 1 mm SA < 1000 < 5000 < 10 000 › 10 000

100 µm to 1000 µm SB < 500 < 3000 < 5000 › 5000

1 µm to 100 µm SC < 70 < 200 < 350 › 350

< 1 µm SD < 70 < 200 < 350 › 350

Notes: µm = micrometer = 0.001 millimeter

µm/m3 = micrograms per cubic meter

6 Airborne contaminants — gases

(Refer to Table 3)

6.1 Reactivity
Two methods have been used for environmental characterization. One is a direct measure of
selected gaseous air pollutants. The other, which can be termed "reactivity monitoring," provides
a quantitative measure of the overall corrosion potential of an environment.
Pollution analysis may provide short-term estimates for specific sites. High values will confirm
that a severe environment exists. The reverse, however, is not necessarily true. Industrial
environments may contain a complex mixture of contaminants that interact to greatly accelerate
(or retard) the corrosive action of individual gas species.
To avoid these practical difficulties, the nature of industrial environments is defined in terms of the
rate at which they react with copper. As a direct measure of overall corrosion potential, reactivity
monitoring involves the placement of specially prepared copper coupons in the operating
environments. Copper has been selected as the coupon material because data exists which
correlates copper film formation with reactive (corrosive) environments. It has proven to be
particularly useful for environmental characterization. Analyses may consist of measurements of
film thickness, film chemistry, or weight loss. Sensitivity of reported techniques is well within the
range required for meaningful application data.
Four levels of corrosion severity are established in Table 3. Concentration levels of some gases
that contribute to these reactivity rates are also cited.

6.2 Contamination effects

Each site may have different combinations and concentration levels of corrosive gaseous
contaminants. Performance degradation can occur rapidly or over many years, depending on
the particular concentration levels and combinations present at a site. The following paragraphs
describe how various pollutants contribute to equipment performance degradation.

ISA-S71.04-1985 11
6.2.1 Relative humidity
High relative humidity accelerates the corrosion caused by gaseous contaminants in an
exponential manner. Equally important is the recognition of the fact that temperature fluctuations
dramatically affect relative humidity and often induce local condensation. Although water is
universally present in industrial atmospheres, the concentration varies widely. It promotes the
corrosive degradation of equipment in the three major ways described below.
1) Directly, as a reactive chemical attacking metals and plastics.
2) Interactively with other atmospheric constituents, in most cases forming a more
reactive combination. An example of this is sulfur dioxide, SO2, which combines with
water to form sulfurous acid.
3) Electrochemically: Many species when dissolved in water form a conductive solution.
When electric potential differences exist between two dissimilar metals, the conditions
for electrolytic or galvanic corrosion processes are set up. These are different
phenomena, but both are caused by and/or promoted by an electrolyte.
6.2.2 Inorganic chlorine compounds (expressed as Cl2 in Table 3)
This group includes chlorine, chlorine dioxide, hydrogen chloride, etc., and reactivity will depend
upon the specific gas composition. In the presence of moisture, these gases generate chloride
ions which react readily with the copper, tin, silver, and iron alloys. These reactions are
significant even when the gases are present at low parts per billion levels. For example, the
corrosivity of air containing 1 part per billion of chlorine would probably place that environment in
the "Moderate" Class G2 category described in 6.3.2. A concentration of 10 parts per billion
would probably increase the severity level to Class G3 or GX. These reactions are attenuated in
dry atmospheres. At higher concentrations, many elastomers and some plastics are oxidized by
exposure to chlorinated gases. Particular care must be given to equipment which is exposed to
atmospheres which contain chlorinated contaminants. Sources of chloride ions, such as
cleaning compounds and cooling tower vapors, etc., should be considered when classifying
industrial environments. They are seldom absent in major installations.
6.2.3 Active sulfur compounds (expressed as H2S in Table 3)
This group includes hydrogen sulfide, elemental sulfur, and organic sulfur compounds such as
the mercaptans. When present at low parts per billion levels, they rapidly attack copper, silver,
aluminum, and iron alloys. The presence of moisture and small amounts of inorganic chlorine
compounds greatly accelerates sulfide corrosion. Note, however, that attack still occurs in low
relative humidity environments. Active sulfurs rank with inorganic chlorides as the predominant
cause of atmospheric corrosion in the process industries.
6.2.4 Sulfur oxides (expressed as SO2 and SO3 in Table 3)
Oxidized forms of sulfur (SO2, SO3) are generated as combustion products of sulfur-bearing
fossil fuels. Low parts per billion levels of sulfur oxides can passivate reactive metals and thus
retard corrosion. At higher levels they attack certain types of masonry, metals, elastomers, and
plastics. The reaction with masonry and metals normally occurs when these gases dissolve in
water to form sulfurous and sulfuric acid.
6.2.5 Nitrogen oxides (expressed as NOx in Table 3)
NOx compounds (NO, NO2, N2O4) are formed as combustion products of fossil fuels and have a
critical role in the formation of ozone in the atmosphere. They are also believed to have a
catalytic effect on corrosion of base metals by chlorides and sulfides. In the presence of
moisture, some of these gases form nitric acid which, in turn, attacks most common materials.

12 ISA-S71.04-1985
6.2.6 Hydrogen fluoride (expressed as HF in Table 3)
This compound is a member of the halogen family and reacts like inorganic chloride compounds.

6.2.7 Ammonia and derivatives (expressed as NH3 in Table 3)

Reduced forms of nitrogen (ammonia, amines, ammonium ions) occur mainly in fertilizer plants,
agricultural applications, and chemical plants. Copper and copper alloys are particularly
susceptible to corrosion in ammonia environments.

6.2.8 Photochemical species (expressed as O3 in Table 3)

The atmosphere contains a wide variety of unstable, reactive species which are formed by the
reaction of sunlight with moisture and other atmospheric constituents. Some have lifetimes
measured in fractions of a second as they participate in rapid chain reactions. In addition to
ozone, a list of examples would include the hydroxyl radical as well as radicals of hydrocarbons,
oxygenated hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, and water. Because of the transient
nature of most of these species, their primary effect is on outdoor installations and enclosures. In
general, plastics and elastomers are more susceptible than metals to photochemical effects.

6.2.9 Strong oxidants

This includes ozone plus certain chlorinated gases (chlorine, chlorine dioxide). Ozone (O3) is an
unstable form of oxygen which is formed from diatomic oxygen by electrical discharge or by solar
radiation in the atmosphere. These gases are powerful bleaching and oxidizing agents. They
attack the surface of many elastomers and plastics. Photochemical oxidation — the combined
effect of oxidants and ultraviolet light (sunlight) — is particularly potent. Ozone may also function
as a catalyst in sulfide and chloride corrosion of metals, but its precise role is unclear.
6.3 Explanation of contaminant severity levels
There is a broad distribution of contaminant concentrations and reactivity levels existing within
industries using process measurement and control equipment. Some environments are severely
corrosive, while others are mild.
The purpose of the contaminant classes is to define environments on the basis of corrosion rate
of oxygen-free high conductivity copper, which is prepared and tested as described in Appendix
C.
6.3.1 Severity level G1
Mild — An environment sufficiently well-controlled such that corrosion is not a factor in
determining equipment reliability.
6.3.2 Severity level G2
Moderate — An environment in which the effects of corrosion are measurable and may be a
factor in determining equipment reliability.
6.3.3 Severity level G3
Harsh — An environment in which there is a high probability that corrosive attack will occur.
These harsh levels should prompt further evaluation resulting in environmental controls or
specially designed and packaged equipment.
6.3.4 Severity level GX
Severe — An environment in which only specially designed and packaged equipment would be
expected to survive. Specifications for equipment in this class are a matter of negotiation
between user and supplier.

ISA-S71.04-1985 13
7 Biological influences

7.1 Biological influences

Flora and fauna are important constituents of the environment in which industrial process
measurement and control equipment is expected to function properly. Usually a tropical climate
has more living contaminants, but other climates can have similar problems.
For example, insects can cause unexpected shutdowns of pneumatic equipment by blocking off
all breather openings with a clay-like cement which they use to form their nests. Also, insulating
material is often subject to damage by cockroaches and rodents, etc., which simply remove the
insulation by nibbling it off the wires. The accumulation of fungi, molds, dead animals, or insects
can cause mechanical, electrical, or thermal equipment failures.
The subject of "flora and fauna" is a general classification for plant growth and animal (insect) life
and is not specific enough to be useful. Therefore, any plant growth or animal life which may
affect equipment performance should be considered.

Table 3 — Classification of reactive environmentsTerminology– Terminology

Severity Level G1 G2 G3 GX
Mild Moderate Harsh Severe

Copper Reactivity Level < 300 < 1000 < 2000 › 2000
(in angstroms)*

The gas concentration levels shown below are provided for reference purposes. They are believed to approximate the Copper
Reactivity Levels stated above, providing the relative humidity is less than 50%. For a given gas concentration, the Severity
Level (and Copper Reactivity Level) can be expected to be increased by one level for each 10% increase in relative humidity
above 50% or for a relative humidity rate of change greater than 6% per hour.

Gas Concentration †

Contaminant Gas Concentration

H2 S < 3 < 10 < 50 › 50

SO2, < 10 < 100 < 300 › 300

SO3
Group A
Cl2 < 1 < 2 < 10 › 10

Reactive NOx < 50 < 125 < 1250 › 1250

Species †,‡
HF < 1 < 2 < 10 › 10

NH3 < 500 < 10 000 < 25 000 › 25 000

Group B§
O3 < 2 < 25 < 100 › 100

*Measured in angstroms after one month’s exposure. See Appendix C, Item Numbers 2, 3.
†mm3/m3 (cubic millimeters per cubic meter) parts per billion average for test period for the gases in Groups A and B.
‡The Group A contaminants often occur together and the reactivity levels include the synergistic effects of these
contaminants.
§The synergistic effects of Group B contaminants are not known at this time.

14 ISA-S71.04-1985
Appendix A — Terminology

Corrosion — Deterioration of a substance (usually a metal) because of a reaction with its

environment.
Contaminant — That which contaminates to make impure or corrupt by contact or mixing.
Electrochemical corrosion — Corrosion of metal caused by current flowing through an
electrolyte between anode and cathode areas.
Erosion — Deterioration by the abrasive action of fluids, usually accelerated by the presence of
solid particles in suspension.
Halide — Compound containing fluorine, bromine, chlorine, or iodine.
Halogen — Bromine, chlorine, fluorine, or iodine.
Hygroscopic — Having a tendency to absorb water.
Oxidation — Loss of electrons by a constituent of a chemical reaction.
Oxide — Chemical compound of an element, usually metal, with oxygen.
Reduction — Gain of electrons by a constituent of a chemical reaction.

ISA-S71.04-1985 15
Appendix B — Section 1: Some common sources of reactive environmental
constituents

Category Symbol Constituent Some Common Sources

Gas H2 S Hydrogen sulfide Geothermal emissions, microbiological activities, fossil fuel processing,
wood pulping, sewage treatment, combustion of fossil fuel, auto emis-
sions, ore smelting, sulfuric acid manufacture

Gas SO2, SO3 Sulfur dioxide Combustion of fossil fuel, auto emissions, ore smelting, sulfuric acid
manufacture, tobacco smoke

Gas S8, R-SH Mercaptans Foundries, sulfur manufacture

Gas HF Hydrogen fluoride Fertilizer manufacture, aluminium manufacture, ceramics manufacture,

steel manufacture, electronics device manufacture, fossil fuel

Gas NOx Oxides of nitrogen Automobile emissions, fossil fuel combustion, microbes, chemical
industry

Gas N2 Active organic nitrogen Automobile emissions, animal waste, vegetable combustion, sewage,
wood pulping

Gas NH3 Ammonia Microbes, sewage, fertilizer manufacture, geothermal steam, refrigera-
tion equipment, cleaning products, reproduction (blueprint) machines

Solid C Carbon Incomplete combustion (aerosol constituent), foundry

Gas CO Carbon monoxide Combustion, automobile emissions, microbes, trees, wood pulping

Gas Cl2, ClO2 Chlorine, Chlorine diox- Chlorine manufacture, aluminium manufacture, paper mills, refuse
ide decomposition, cleaning products

Gas HCl Hydrogen chloride Automobile emissions, combustion, oceanic processes, polymer com-
bustion

Gas HBr, HI Halogen compounds Automotive emissions

Liquid Cl Chloride ions Aerosol content, oceanic processes, ore processing

Gas O3 Ozone Atmospheric photochemical processes mainly involving nitrogen oxides

and oxygenated hydrocarbons, automotive emissions, electrostatic fil-
ters

Gas Cn H n Hydrocarbons Automotive emissions, fossil fuel processing, tobacco smoke, water
treatment, microbes. Many other sources, both natural and industrial,
paper mill

Solid — Inorganic dust Crystal rock, rock and ore processing, combustion, blowing sand and
many industrial sources

ISA-S71.04-1985 17
Appendix B — Section 2 : Some common emissions of natural and industrial
processes

Natural Processes Emissions

Microbes H2, NH3, NOx, H2S, CO, large variety of organics of many types

Sewage NH3, aldehydes, many organics, H2S, mercaptans, H2, S, CO

Geothermal H2, H2S, SO2

Marshy area H2S, NH3, SO2

Animal matter Many organics, mainly oxygenated

Forest fire HCl, CO, CO2

Oceans NaCl, chloride ions

Industrial Processes Emissions

Power generation SO2, C, CO, NOx, hydrocarbons, organics

Automotive combustion SO2, SO3, HCl, HBr, NOx, hydrocarbons, organics, CO, HBr

Diesel combustion CO, NOx, many organics

Fossil fuel processing H2S, S, SO2, NH3, hydrocarbons, other organics, mercaptans

Plastic manufacture All organics, aldehydes, alcohols, NH3, SO2

Cement plants SO3, dust, SO2, NOx, CO

Steel blast furnaces H2S, SO2, CO, HF, coal dust

Steel electric furnaces H2S, SO2, C, CO

Coke plants H2S, CO, HCN, carbon, dust

Pulp manufacture Cl2, SO2, H2S, CO, wood fibers, dust

Chlorine plants Chlorine, chlorine compounds, NaCl

Fertilizer manufacture HF, NH3, CH4, gas, liquids, dust, acids

Food processing Hydrocarbons, many organics

Rubber manufacture H2S, S8, R-SH

Paint manufacture C, hydrocarbons, oxygenated hydrocarbons, dust

Aluminum manufacture HF, SO2, C, dust

Ore smelting SO2, CO, H2, dust

Tobacco smoke H2S, SO2, HCN, CO, tars and particulates

Gasoline and fuel vapors Hydrocarbons, oxygenated hydrocarbons

Battery manufacture SO2, acids, dust

18 ISA-S71.04-1985
Appendix C — Copper reactivity samples

C.1 Sample preparation — Copper samples (nominal size 15 cm2) should be prepared from
99.99 purity, oxygen-free high conductivity (OFHC), 0.635 mm thick sheet; 1/2 – 3/4 hard.
Prepare as follows:
1) Abrade with 240X metallograph paper using a wax lubricant.
2) Abrade with 400X metallograph paper as in Step (1).
3) Abrade with 600X metallograph paper as in Step (1).*
4) Scrub with cotton soaked in hot reagent grade acetone.
5) Dip in hot reagent grade isopropyl alcohol.
6) Store in glass containers purged with dry nitrogen.

C.2 Sample exposure — Three copper coupons should be placed vertically at the site being
monitored. Particular care should be taken to avoid surface contamination such as fingerprints.
Installation should be in an area which has air flow rates that are characteristic of the site.
Corrosion is defined in terms of the corrosion film thickness which builds up with one month of
exposure. It is recognized that film buildup will be quite slow in mild areas but rapid in severe
sites. To facilitate film thickness measurements in these extreme conditions, test times can be
extended to three months at mild sites or reduced to two weeks in harsh environments. Copper
corrosion is nonlinear, so changes of this type must be made with great care. Experience has
shown that measurements over longer or shorter test times can be reduced to a normalized one
month value by using the relationship
A
x1 = x ( t1 ⁄ t )
where x1 is the equivalent film thickness after one month
x is the measured film thickness after time t
t1 is thirty days
t is the actual test time (days)
A is equal to 0.3 for G1, 0.5 for G2, 1 for G3 and GX

C.3 Sample analysis — Film thickness should be determined by cathodic reduction using the
method of W. E. Campbell and U. B. Thomas, "Tarnish Studies," Bell Telephone System Technical
Publications, Monograph 13, 1170 (1939).

C.4 References
Abbott, W. H. "The Effects of Operating Environments on Electrical and Electronic Equip-
ment Reliability in the Pulp and Paper Industry." Paper presented at the IEEE Industry
Applications Society 1983 Pulp and Paper Technical Conference, May 1983. IEEE
Conference Record. New York: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.,
1983.
Rice, D. W., et al. "Atmospheric Corrosion of Copper and Silver." Electrochem. Soc. 128,
no. 2 (February 1981): 275-284.

*Steps (3) through (5) should be done as near to placement time as possible.

ISA-S71.04-1985 19
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