Unit I LIC
Unit I LIC
Unit I LIC
The operational amplifier is a direct-coupled high gain amplifier usable from 0 to over 1MHz to which feedback is added to control its overall response characteristic i.e., gain
and bandwidth. The op-amp exhibits the gain down to zero frequency.
The operational amplifier is a versatile device that can be used to amplify dc as well as ac input signals. It was originally designed for performing mathematical operations such
as addition, subtraction, multiplication and integration.
Input Stage:
It is the dual-input balanced output differential amplifier. This stage provides most of the voltage gain of the amplifier and also establishes the input resistance of the amplifier.
Intermediate Stage:
It is the dual input unbalanced (single-ended) output differential amplifier. It is driven by the output of the first stage. Input stage is direct coupled to intermediate stage. The
intermediate stage is a high-gain voltage amplifier. This stage increases the overall gain of op-amp.
Output Stage:
The level shifted signal is then given to the output stage where a push-pull amplifier increases the output voltage swing of the signal and also increases the current supplying
capability of the op-amp. It also ensures that the output resistance of op-amp is low.
Level Translator
We can use voltage divider emitter follower for that purpose. DC voltage is determined by the ratio of R1 and R2.
We know that the D.C. supply voltages applied to the op-amp are VCC
and -VEE and the output varies linearly only between VCC and -VEE
(from point A to B). There is very little distortion of the amplifier
output.
Since gain is very large in open loop condition, the output voltage Vo
is either at its positive saturation voltage (+Vsat) or negative saturation
voltage (- Vsat) beyond linear region.
The output voltage cannot exceed the positive and negative
saturation voltages.
These saturation voltages are specified for given values of supply
voltages. This means that the output voltage is directly proportional to
the input difference voltage only until it reaches the saturation
voltages and thereafter the output voltage remains constant. Thus,
curve is called an ideal voltage transfer curve, ideal because output
offset voltage is assumed to be zero.
If the curve is drawn to scale, the curve would be almost vertical
Ideal Transfer Characteristics
because of very large values of Ad.
Input Offset Voltage (Vio)
It is a very small voltage applied at the inputs, to make the output terminal zero of the
operational amplifier.
OR
Input offset voltage is the voltage that must be applied between the two input terminals
of an op-amp to null the output.
It reflects the symmetry of the op amp circuit. The better the symmetry, the smaller
the input offset voltage. (The smaller the value of Vio the better the input terminals
are matched)
This voltage could be positive or negative its absolute value is listed on the data sheet.
For 741C, the maximum value is 6mV. Where, Vdc1 and Vdc2 = DC voltages
It means a voltage ± 6 mV is required to one of the inputs to reduce the output Rs = Source resistance
offset voltage to zero.
The smaller the input offset voltage the better the differential amplifier, because its
transistors are more closely matched.
The algebraic difference between the currents into the inverting and noninverting terminals
is referred to as input offset current Iio.
Iio=|IB1 - IB2|
Where, IB1 = Current into the noninverting input
Base Currents of the first differential amplifier stage
o IB2 = Current into the inverting input
It is the average of the currents that flow into the inverting and noninverting input terminals of the op-amp.
I + I
I =
2
IB = 500nA maximum for the 741C.
Input Capacitance
Ci is the equivalent capacitance that can be measured at either the inverting and noninverting terminal with the other terminal connected to ground.
A typical value of Ci is 1.4 pf for the 741C.
741 OPAMP have offset voltage null capability. Pins 1 and 5 are marked offset null for this purpose.
It can be done by connecting 10 K ohm pot between 1 and 5.
By varying the potentiometer, output offset voltage (with inputs grounded) can be reduced to zero
volts. Thus, the offset voltage adjustment range is the range through which the input offset voltage
can be adjusted by varying 10 K pot. For the 741C the offset voltage adjustment range is ± 15 mV
Differential Input Resistance (Ri)
Ri is the equivalent resistance that can be measured at either the inverting or non-inverting input terminal with the other terminal grounded. For the 741C the input resistance is
relatively high 2 MΩ. For some OPAMP it may be up to 1000 G ohm.
RO is the equivalent resistance that can be measured between the output terminal of the OPAMP and the ground. It is 75 ohms for the 741C OPAMP
When the same voltage is applied to both input terminals, the voltage is called a common-mode voltage.
Input voltage range is the range of a common mode input signal for which a differential amplifier remains linear.
It is used to determine the degree of matching between the inverting and noninverting input terminals.
For the 741C, the range of the input common mode voltage is ± 13V maximum.
Slew Rate
The slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of output voltage change per unit time.
Slew rate indicates how rapidly the output of an op-amp can change in response to the input frequency.
The slew rate changes with change in voltage gain and is normally specified at unity gain.
The slew rate should be as high as possible to ensure the maximum undistorted output voltage swing.
The Slew rate of IC 741 op-amp is only about 0.5 V/us which is its major drawback. Therefore, it cannot
be used for high-frequency applications.
Slew rate for an ideal op-amp is infinity.
This term is expressed in microvolts per volt or decibels. For 741C, PSRR=150µV/V, lower the value of PSRR, better the op-amps.
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
CMRR is defined as the ratio of the differential voltage gain Ad to the common mode voltage gain
ACM
CMRR = Ad / ACM
The higher the value of CMRR the better is the matching between two input terminals and the
smaller is the output common mode voltage.
If the signals V1 and V2 at the input terminals are opposite, the output voltage is highly amplified
and if V1 and V2 are same, they are only slightly amplified.
The Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) indicates the ability of a differential amplifier to
suppress signals common to the two inputs.
The unity-gain bandwidth of an amplifier is simply the frequency of an input signal at which the open-loop gain is equal to 1.
The gain bandwidth product, GBW, is defined as the product of the open loop voltage gain and the frequency at which it is measured. GBW is expressed in units of hertz.
Output voltage Swing
The ac output compliance Peak to Peak is the maximum unclipped peak to peak output voltage that an OPAMP can produce. Since the quiescent output is ideally zero, the ac
output voltage can swing positive or negative. This also indicates the values of positive and negative saturation voltages of the OPAMP. The output voltage never exceeds these
limits for a given supply voltages +VCC and –VEE. For a 741C it is ± 13 V.
In some applications, an OPAMP may drive a load resistance that is approximately zero. Even its output impedance is 75 ohms but cannot supply large currents. Since OPAMP
is low power device and so its output current is limited. The 741C can supply a maximum short circuit output current of only 25mA.
Supply Current
Supply Current is the current drawn by the OPAMP from the supply. For the 741C OPAMP the supply current is 2.8 mA.
Large signal voltage gain (A or Av) indicates the maximum amplification possible without any feedback. The large signal voltage gain is the ratio of the output to the differential
input voltage
Bandwidth ∞ 1MHz
CMRR ∞ 90dB
The negative sign indicates that the output voltage is out of phase with respect to input by
180 degrees. Thus, in the inverting amplifier the input signal is amplified by gain A and is
also inverted at the output.
Noninverting Amplifier
In noninverting configuration, the input is applied to the noninverting input terminal and
the inverting terminal is connected to ground.
V1 = Vin and V2 = 0
Vo = A Vin
This means that the output voltage is larger than the input voltage by gain A and is in
phase with input signal.
Clipping occurs when the output attempts to exceed the saturation levels of the op-amp.
Besides being large, the open-loop voltage gain of the op-amp is not constant.
The voltage gain varies with changes in temperature and power supply as well as mass production techniques.
The bandwidth of most open op-amp is negligibly small. For this reason, the open-loop op-amp is impractical in ac applications.
If the signal is fedback in phase with the input signal, the feedback is called positive feedback. In positive feedback the feedback signal aids the input signal. It is also
known as regenerative feedback. Positive feedback is necessary in oscillator circuits.
Advantages of negative feedback
Feedback System
Signal Source
This block is either a signal voltage Vs in series with a resistor Rs or a signal current Is in parallel with a resistor Rs.
Sampling Network
There are two ways to sample the output, according to sampling parameter, either voltage or current. The output voltage is sampled by connecting the feedback network in
shunt across the output. This type of connection is referred to as voltage sampling. The output current is sampled by connecting the feedback network in series with the
output. This type of connection is referred to as current sampling.
Feedback Network
The feedback network is usually in the form of a passive two-port network and may be formed of resistors, inductor and capacitors (most often of resistors). Its function is to
return a function of the output energy (voltage or current) to the input of the amplifier.
Mixer Network: There are two ways of mixing feedback signal with the input signal. These are series input connection and shunt input connection.
Principle of Negative Feedback Amplifier
Negative Feedback System
Here voltage refers to connecting the output voltage as input to the feedback network. Similarly current refers to connecting the output current as input to the feedback network.
Series refers to connecting the feedback signal in series with the input voltage; Shunt refers to connecting the feedback signal in shunt (parallel) with an input current source.
Current Shunt Feedback Amplifier
The feedback circuit is placed in series with the output and in parallel
with the input.
It increases the output and because of connecting the feedback circuit
in parallel with the input, the input impedance is decreased.
Current Shunt= Current sampling + Shunt mixing
The 747 is a general purpose dual operational amplifier containing two 741 op-amps. The two operational amplifiers have a common bias network and power supply leads.
Otherwise, their operation is completely independent.