Unit I

Fundamentals of Operational Amplifier

Operational Amplifiers:

The operational amplifier is a direct-coupled high gain amplifier usable from 0 to over 1MHz to which feedback is added to control its overall response characteristic i.e., gain
and bandwidth. The op-amp exhibits the gain down to zero frequency.
The operational amplifier is a versatile device that can be used to amplify dc as well as ac input signals. It was originally designed for performing mathematical operations such
as addition, subtraction, multiplication and integration.

Input Stage:
It is the dual-input balanced output differential amplifier. This stage provides most of the voltage gain of the amplifier and also establishes the input resistance of the amplifier.

Intermediate Stage:
It is the dual input unbalanced (single-ended) output differential amplifier. It is driven by the output of the first stage. Input stage is direct coupled to intermediate stage. The
intermediate stage is a high-gain voltage amplifier. This stage increases the overall gain of op-amp.

Level Translator (Shifting):

It is the emitter follower with constant current source. Due to direct coupling between first stage and intermediate stage, the dc voltage at the output of the intermediate stage is
well above ground potential. Level shifting stage is used to bring dc level to zero volts with respect to ground.

Output Stage:
The level shifted signal is then given to the output stage where a push-pull amplifier increases the output voltage swing of the signal and also increases the current supplying
capability of the op-amp. It also ensures that the output resistance of op-amp is low.
Level Translator

We can use voltage divider emitter follower for that purpose. DC voltage is determined by the ratio of R1 and R2.

Equivalent Circuit of Op-amp

Symbol
A Vid is an equivalent Thevenin voltage source and Ro
is the Thevenin equivalent resistance back into the
output terminal of an op-amp.

Vo = A Vid = A (V1 - V2)

Where, A = Large Signal Voltage Gain
Vid = Difference input voltage
V1 = Voltage at the noninverting input terminal with
respect to ground
V2 = Voltage at the inverting input terminal with
respect to ground
The output voltage Vo is directly proportional to the
algebraic difference the two input voltages.
IC 741

Pin 1 is Offset null.

Pin 2 is Inverting input terminal.
Pin 3 is a non-inverting input terminal.
Pin 4 is negative voltage supply (-VEE)
Pin 5 is offset null.
Pin 6 is the output voltage.
Pin 7 is positive voltage supply (+VCC)
Pin 8 has no connection.
Offset null pin used to eliminate the offset voltage and balance the input voltages for op-amp

Transfer Characteristics of an Op-Amp

 We know that the D.C. supply voltages applied to the op-amp are VCC
and -VEE and the output varies linearly only between VCC and -VEE
(from point A to B). There is very little distortion of the amplifier
output.
 Since gain is very large in open loop condition, the output voltage Vo
is either at its positive saturation voltage (+Vsat) or negative saturation
voltage (- Vsat) beyond linear region.
 The output voltage cannot exceed the positive and negative
saturation voltages.
 These saturation voltages are specified for given values of supply
voltages. This means that the output voltage is directly proportional to
the input difference voltage only until it reaches the saturation
voltages and thereafter the output voltage remains constant. Thus,
curve is called an ideal voltage transfer curve, ideal because output
offset voltage is assumed to be zero.
 If the curve is drawn to scale, the curve would be almost vertical
Ideal Transfer Characteristics
because of very large values of Ad.
Input Offset Voltage (Vio)

 It is a very small voltage applied at the inputs, to make the output terminal zero of the
operational amplifier.
 OR
 Input offset voltage is the voltage that must be applied between the two input terminals
of an op-amp to null the output.

 It reflects the symmetry of the op amp circuit. The better the symmetry, the smaller
the input offset voltage. (The smaller the value of Vio the better the input terminals
are matched)
 This voltage could be positive or negative its absolute value is listed on the data sheet.
For 741C, the maximum value is 6mV. Where, Vdc1 and Vdc2 = DC voltages
 It means a voltage ± 6 mV is required to one of the inputs to reduce the output Rs = Source resistance
offset voltage to zero.
 The smaller the input offset voltage the better the differential amplifier, because its
transistors are more closely matched.

Output offset voltage (Voo)

 It is the output voltage of op-amp when both inputs are
zero.
 VOO is due to dissimilarities in transistor (The output offset
voltage.
 VOO is caused by mismatching between two input terminals)
and due to mismatch in Resistor values in the internal circuit of
the op-amp.
Input Offset Current

 The algebraic difference between the currents into the inverting and noninverting terminals
is referred to as input offset current Iio.
Iio=|IB1 - IB2|
 Where, IB1 = Current into the noninverting input
Base Currents of the first differential amplifier stage
o IB2 = Current into the inverting input

 The input offset current for the 741C is 200nA maximum.

 As the matching between two input terminals is improved, the input offset current becomes smaller.

Input Bias Current (IB)

 It is the average of the currents that flow into the inverting and noninverting input terminals of the op-amp.

I + I
I =
2
 IB = 500nA maximum for the 741C.

Input Capacitance
 Ci is the equivalent capacitance that can be measured at either the inverting and noninverting terminal with the other terminal connected to ground.
 A typical value of Ci is 1.4 pf for the 741C.

Offset Voltage Adjustment Range

 741 OPAMP have offset voltage null capability. Pins 1 and 5 are marked offset null for this purpose.
It can be done by connecting 10 K ohm pot between 1 and 5.

 By varying the potentiometer, output offset voltage (with inputs grounded) can be reduced to zero
volts. Thus, the offset voltage adjustment range is the range through which the input offset voltage
can be adjusted by varying 10 K pot. For the 741C the offset voltage adjustment range is ± 15 mV
Differential Input Resistance (Ri)

Ri is the equivalent resistance that can be measured at either the inverting or non-inverting input terminal with the other terminal grounded. For the 741C the input resistance is
relatively high 2 MΩ. For some OPAMP it may be up to 1000 G ohm.

Output Resistance: (RO)

RO is the equivalent resistance that can be measured between the output terminal of the OPAMP and the ground. It is 75 ohms for the 741C OPAMP

Input Voltage Range

 When the same voltage is applied to both input terminals, the voltage is called a common-mode voltage.
 Input voltage range is the range of a common mode input signal for which a differential amplifier remains linear.
 It is used to determine the degree of matching between the inverting and noninverting input terminals.
 For the 741C, the range of the input common mode voltage is ± 13V maximum.

Slew Rate
 The slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of output voltage change per unit time.

 Slew rate indicates how rapidly the output of an op-amp can change in response to the input frequency.
The slew rate changes with change in voltage gain and is normally specified at unity gain.
 The slew rate should be as high as possible to ensure the maximum undistorted output voltage swing.
 The Slew rate of IC 741 op-amp is only about 0.5 V/us which is its major drawback. Therefore, it cannot
be used for high-frequency applications.
 Slew rate for an ideal op-amp is infinity.

Power Supply Rejection Ratio / Supply Voltage Rejection Ratio

The change in an op-amp’s input offset voltage due to variations in supply voltage is called as power supply rejection ratio (PSRR) or called as supply voltage rejection ratio
(SVRR).

This term is expressed in microvolts per volt or decibels. For 741C, PSRR=150µV/V, lower the value of PSRR, better the op-amps.
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

 CMRR is defined as the ratio of the differential voltage gain Ad to the common mode voltage gain
ACM
 CMRR = Ad / ACM

 For the 741C, CMRR is 90 dB typically.

 The higher the value of CMRR the better is the matching between two input terminals and the
smaller is the output common mode voltage.

 If the signals V1 and V2 at the input terminals are opposite, the output voltage is highly amplified
and if V1 and V2 are same, they are only slightly amplified.

 The Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) indicates the ability of a differential amplifier to
suppress signals common to the two inputs.

Unity Gain BW:

The unity-gain bandwidth of an amplifier is simply the frequency of an input signal at which the open-loop gain is equal to 1.
The gain bandwidth product, GBW, is defined as the product of the open loop voltage gain and the frequency at which it is measured. GBW is expressed in units of hertz.
Output voltage Swing

The ac output compliance Peak to Peak is the maximum unclipped peak to peak output voltage that an OPAMP can produce. Since the quiescent output is ideally zero, the ac
output voltage can swing positive or negative. This also indicates the values of positive and negative saturation voltages of the OPAMP. The output voltage never exceeds these
limits for a given supply voltages +VCC and –VEE. For a 741C it is ± 13 V.

Output Short circuit Current

In some applications, an OPAMP may drive a load resistance that is approximately zero. Even its output impedance is 75 ohms but cannot supply large currents. Since OPAMP
is low power device and so its output current is limited. The 741C can supply a maximum short circuit output current of only 25mA.

Supply Current

Supply Current is the current drawn by the OPAMP from the supply. For the 741C OPAMP the supply current is 2.8 mA.

Large signal voltage gain (A or Av) indicates the maximum amplification possible without any feedback. The large signal voltage gain is the ratio of the output to the differential
input voltage

Parameters Ideal Op-Amp Practical Op-Amp

(IC 741C)
Open Loop Gain ∞ 200000

Input resistance Ri ∞ 2MΩ

Output resistance Ro 0 75Ω

Input Offset Voltage 0 6mV dc

Input Offset Current 0 200nA

Bandwidth ∞ 1MHz

CMRR ∞ 90dB

Slew Rate ∞ 0.5V/µSec

Open loop OPAMP Configuration

Differential Amplifier – Open Loop Op-amp

Fig., shows the open loop differential amplifier in which input signals vin1 and vin2 are
applied to the positive and negative input terminals.
Since the OPAMP amplifies the difference the between the two input signals, this
configuration is called the differential amplifier. The OPAMP amplifies both ac and dc
input signals.
The source resistance Rin1 and Rin2 are normally negligible compared to the input
resistance Ri. Therefore, voltage drop across these resistances can be assumed to be zero.
Therefore,
V1 = Vin1 and V2 = Vin2
VO = A (Vin1 - Vin2)
Where, A is the open loop gain.

The Inverting Amplifier

If the input is applied to only inverting terminal and non-inverting terminal is grounded
then it is called inverting amplifier. This configuration is shown in fig.
V1= 0, V2 = Vin
VO = -Ad Vin

The negative sign indicates that the output voltage is out of phase with respect to input by
180 degrees. Thus, in the inverting amplifier the input signal is amplified by gain A and is
also inverted at the output.
Noninverting Amplifier
In noninverting configuration, the input is applied to the noninverting input terminal and
the inverting terminal is connected to ground.
V1 = Vin and V2 = 0

Vo = A Vin
This means that the output voltage is larger than the input voltage by gain A and is in
phase with input signal.

Disadvantages of open-loop configuration

 Clipping occurs when the output attempts to exceed the saturation levels of the op-amp.
 Besides being large, the open-loop voltage gain of the op-amp is not constant.
 The voltage gain varies with changes in temperature and power supply as well as mass production techniques.
 The bandwidth of most open op-amp is negligibly small. For this reason, the open-loop op-amp is impractical in ac applications.

Closed Loop Amplifier:

The gain of the OPAMP can be controlled if feedback is introduced in the circuit. That is, an output signal is fedback to the input either directly or via another network. If the
signal fedback is of opposite or out phase by 180° with respect to the input signal, the feedback is called negative feedback.
An amplifier with negative fedback has a self-correcting ability of change in output voltage caused by changes in environmental conditions. It is also known as degenerative
feedback because it reduces the output voltage and in turn, reduces the voltage gain.

If the signal is fedback in phase with the input signal, the feedback is called positive feedback. In positive feedback the feedback signal aids the input signal. It is also
known as regenerative feedback. Positive feedback is necessary in oscillator circuits.
Advantages of negative feedback

 Stabilizes the gain

 Increases the bandwidth
 Changes the input and output resistances
 Decreases nonlinear distortion
 It reduces the effect of variation in temperature and supply voltages on the output of the op-amp.

Feedback System

Signal Source
This block is either a signal voltage Vs in series with a resistor Rs or a signal current Is in parallel with a resistor Rs.

Sampling Network
There are two ways to sample the output, according to sampling parameter, either voltage or current. The output voltage is sampled by connecting the feedback network in
shunt across the output. This type of connection is referred to as voltage sampling. The output current is sampled by connecting the feedback network in series with the
output. This type of connection is referred to as current sampling.

Feedback Network
The feedback network is usually in the form of a passive two-port network and may be formed of resistors, inductor and capacitors (most often of resistors). Its function is to
return a function of the output energy (voltage or current) to the input of the amplifier.

Mixer Network: There are two ways of mixing feedback signal with the input signal. These are series input connection and shunt input connection.
Principle of Negative Feedback Amplifier
Negative Feedback System

 In the above figure, the gain of the amplifier is represented

as A.
 The gain of the amplifier is the ratio of output voltage Xo to
the input voltage Xi.
 The feedback network extracts a voltage Xf = β Xo from the
output Xo of the amplifier.
 The quantity β = Xf /Xo is called as feedback ratio or
feedback fraction
A closed loop amplifier can be represented by two blocks one for an OPAMP and other for feedback circuits. There are four following ways to connect these blocks.
These connections are classified according to whether the voltage or current is feedback to the input in series or in parallel:

 Voltage series feedback

 Voltage shunt feedback
 Current series feedback
 Current shunt feedback

Here voltage refers to connecting the output voltage as input to the feedback network. Similarly current refers to connecting the output current as input to the feedback network.
Series refers to connecting the feedback signal in series with the input voltage; Shunt refers to connecting the feedback signal in shunt (parallel) with an input current source.
Current Shunt Feedback Amplifier
 The feedback circuit is placed in series with the output and in parallel
with the input.
 It increases the output and because of connecting the feedback circuit
in parallel with the input, the input impedance is decreased.
 Current Shunt= Current sampling + Shunt mixing

Current Series Feedback Amplifier

 The feedback circuit is placed in series with the input and output.
 In this feedback amplifier, both the input and output impedance are
increased
 Current Series = Current sampling + Series mixing
Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier:
 The feedback circuit is connected in shunt with the output in such a
way that it decreases the output impedance and increases the input
impedance.
 In this circuit, it is placed in a shunt with the output but in series with
respect to the input signal.
 Voltage series feedback = Voltage sampling + Series mixing

Voltage Shunt Feedback Amplifier

 Here the feedback circuit is placed in a shunt with respect to output
and input as well.
 It decreases the input and output impedance.
 Voltage Shunt Feedback = Voltage Sampling + Shunt Mixing
Dual OP-AMP IC 747

The 747 is a general purpose dual operational amplifier containing two 741 op-amps. The two operational amplifiers have a common bias network and power supply leads.
Otherwise, their operation is completely independent.

Features of 747 op-amp:

 Features of 747 op-amp:

 Dual supply voltage ±1.5V to ±15V
 No frequency compensation required
 Short-circuit protection
 Wide common-mode and differential voltage ranges
 Low power consumption
 Unity gain stable
 No latch-up
 Balanced offset null
 Low noise interference among op-amps
 Differential input voltage: ±30V
 Common-Mode Rejection Ratio: 90dB
 Operating temperature: -55ºC to +125ºC
 Total power dissipation: 800mW

Pin1 – Inverting input terminal of op-amp1

Pin8 – Offset null terminal of op-amp2
Pin2 – Non-inverting input terminal of op-amp1
Pin9 – Positive supply voltage (+V) of op-amp2
Pin3 – Offset null terminal op-amp1
Pin10 – Output of op-amp2
Pin4 – Negative supply voltage (-V)
Pin11 – No connection (NC)
Pin5 – Offset null terminal of op-amp2
Pin13 – Positive supply voltage of op-amp1
Pin6 – Non-inverting input terminal of op-amp2
Pin14 – Offset null terminal of op-amp1
Pin7 – Inverting input terminal of op-amp2