Control System and Sensor

 What is system?
 A system is an arrangement, set or collection of things connected or related in such a
manner as to form an entirely or whole.
e. g.
1. This universe is itself a system consisting of large number of subsystems.
2. Human body as a system has digestive system, respiratory system (breath) etc.
 What is control system?
 A control system is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in
such a manner as to command, direct or regulate itself or another system.
 Examples of control system applications: -
Following are some examples of control system applications:
1. Steering control of automobile
2. Print wheel control system
3. Industrial sewing machine
4. Sun-tracking control of solar collectors
5. Speed control system
6. Temperature control of an electric furnace

 Classification of control systems: - Control systems are classified into

the following two basic types: -
1. Open-loop control systems (Unmonitored or non-feedback control
systems)
2. Closed-loop control systems (Monitored or feedback control
systems)
 Open-loop control systems (Non-feedback systems):-
 An Open-loop control system is one in which the control action is
independent of the desired output. The actuating signal depends only
on the input command and output has no control over it.
 The elements of an open-loop control system can usually be divided
into the following two parts:-
1. Controller
2. Controlled Process
 Practical examples of open loop control system: -
1. Electric Hand Drier
2. Automatic Tea/Coffee Maker
3. Light Switch
4. Volume on Stereo System
Figure 2: Open loop system.
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Figure 2: Example of open loop system.
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 Advantages of open-loop control system: -
1. Simple construction.
2. Easy maintenance.
3. Less costly than a closed-loop system.
4. No stability problem.

 Limitations of open-loop control system: -

1. Since the system is affected by internal and external disturbances, the output may
differ from the desired value.
2. For getting accurate results, this system needs frequent and careful calibrations.
3. Any change in system component cannot be taken care of automatically
 Closed-loop control system (Feedback control system):-
 Control system in which the output has an effect on the input quantity in such a manner
that the input quantity will adjust itself based on the output generated is called closed
loop control system.
 Open loop control system can be converted in to closed loop control system by providing
a feedback.
 Practical examples of open loop control system: -
1. Automatic Electric Iron
2. An Air Conditioner
Figure 4: Close loop system.
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Figure 5: Example of close loop system. 11
 Advantages of closed loop control system: -
1. More accurate comparatively
2. Facilitates automation
3. Highly accurate as any error arising is corrected due to presence of feedback
signal

 Limitations of closed loop control system: -

1. They are costlier.
2. They are complicated to design.
3. Required more maintenance.
  Comparison of open loop and closed loop control system: -

S. No. Open loop control system Closed loop control system

1. The feedback element is absent. The feedback element is always

present.

2. An error detector is not present. An error detector is always present.

3. It is stable one. It may become unstable.

4. Easy to construct. Complicated construction.

5. It is an economical. It is costly.

6. It is inaccurate. It is accurate.

7. It is unreliable. It is reliable.

8. Less maintenance. More maintenance.

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 What is Analog Signal?
 An Analog signal signifies a continuous signal that keeps changes
with a time period.
 Analog signals are continuous sine waves.
 The example of an Analog signal is the human voice.
 Pure audio signals are also Analog.
 An Analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time-varying
feature (variable) of the signal is a representation of some other time
varying quantity, i.e., analogous to another time varying signal.
 What is Digital Signal?
 A digital signal signifies a discrete signal that carries binary data and
has discrete values.
 Digital signal is square waves.
 Digital signal is limited as well as ranges from 0 to 1.
 The example of a digital signal is the data transmission in a
computer.
 Digital signal has a discrete value at each sampling point.
 It can be considered to be a sequence of on/off signals, the value of
variable being represented by the sequence of on/off pulses.
Figure 6: Analog and Digital Signals.
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 Cont...

 What is Sensor or Transducer?

 Collect information about the world.
 Sensor - an electrical/mechanical/chemical device that maps an
environmental attribute to a quantitative measurement.
 Each sensor is based on a transduction principle - conversion of
energy from one form to another.
 It is used for an element which produces a signal relating to the
quantity being measured.
 It is a device that converts signals from one energy domain to
electrical domain.
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 Human sensing and organs: -

 Vision: eyes (optics, light)
 Hearing: ears (acoustics, sound)
 Touch: skin (mechanics, heat)
 Odour: nose (vapour-phase chemistry)
 Taste: tongue (liquid-phase chemistry)
 Cont...
 Types of Sensors: -
 In the first classification of the sensors, they are divided in to Active
and Passive.
 Active Sensors require an external excitation signal or a power
signal. Sensors that require power supply are called as Active
Sensors.
 Active transducer is a device which converts the given non-electrical
energy into electrical energy by itself. Thermocouple, Photovoltaic
cell and more are the best examples of the transducers.
 Passive Sensors, on the other hand, do not require any external
power signal and directly generates output response. Sensors that do
not require power supply are called as Passive Sensors.
 Cont...
 Types of Sensors: -
 Passive transducer is a device which converts the given non-electrical
energy into electrical energy by external force. Resistance strain
gauge, Differential Transformer are the examples for the Passive
transducers.
 The another classification of the sensors are Analog and Digital
Sensors. Analog Sensors produce an Analog output i.e. a continuous
output signal with respect to the quantity being measured.
 Digital Sensors, in contrast to Analog Sensors, work with discrete or
digital data, i.e. a sequence of essentially on/off signals. The data in
digital sensors, which is used for conversion and transmission, is
digital in nature.
 Cont...
 Types of Sensors: -
 The following is a list of different types of sensors that are commonly
used in various applications. All these sensors are used for
measuring one of the physical properties like Temperature,
Resistance, Capacitance, Conduction, Heat Transfer etc.
 Temperature Sensor
 Proximity Sensor
 Accelerometer
 IR Sensor (Infrared Sensor)
 Pressure Sensor
 Light Sensor
 Ultrasonic Sensor
 Cont...
 Types of Sensors: -
 Smoke, Gas and Alcohol Sensor
 Touch Sensor
 Color Sensor
 Humidity Sensor
 Tilt Sensor
 Flow and Level Sensor.
 Cont...

 Sensors Based on Sound: -

 SONAR: Sound Navigation and Ranging
 bounce sound off of objects
 measure time for reflection to be heard - gives a range measurement
 measure change in frequency - gives the relative speed of the object
(Doppler effect)
 bats and dolphins use it with amazing result
Ultrasonic Distance Sensor
The HC-SR04 ultrasonic sensor uses sonar to determine distance to
an object like bats do.
It offers excellent non-contact range detection with high accuracy
and stable readings in an easy-to-use package.
From 2cm to 400 cm. Its operation is not affected by sunlight or
black material like sharp rangefinders are (although acoustically soft
materials like cloth can be difficult to detect).
It comes complete with ultrasonic transmitter and receiver module.
An ultrasonic sensor uses a transducer to send and receive ultrasonic
pulses that relay back information about an object’s proximity.
The time between the transmission and reception of the signal allows
us to know the distance to an object. This is possible because we
know the sound’s velocity in the air.
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How Does it Work?

The ultrasonic sensor uses sonar to determine the distance to an object.
Here’s what happens: -
 The transmitter (trig pin) sends a signal: a high-frequency sound.
 When the signal finds an object, it is reflected and the transmitter
(echo pin) receives it.
 3.3V to 5V operation
 Cont...

Figure 8: Working of ultrasonic sensor.

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 Infrared Proximity Sensor
 Proximity Sensor:
 Proximity Sensor are used to detect objects and obstacles in front of sensor. Sensor keeps
transmitting infrared light and when any object comes near, it is detected by the sensor by
monitoring the reflected light from the object.

 Features: -
 IR transmitter
 Ambient light protected IR receiver
 3 pin easy interface connectors
 Indicator LED & Power LED
 Distance 2cm to 30cm
 Can differentiate between dark and light colours
 Active Low on object detection
 3.3 to 5V operation

 Applications of Proximity Sensor: -

 Obstacle Detector Sensor
 Line Follower Sensor (color detection between basic contrasting colors)
 Wall Follower Sensor
 Cont...

Figure 9: IR Reflective Sensors.

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IR Distance Sensors
Sharp GP2D02 IR Ranger
Distance range: 10cm (4") ~ 80cm (30").
Moderately reliable for distance measurement
Immune to ambient light
Impervious to color and reflectivity of object
Applications: distance measurement, wall following, …

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 Cont...
IR Distance Sensors
• Basic principle of operation:
• IR emitter + focusing lens + position-sensitive detector

Modulated IR light

Location of the spot on the detector corresponds to

the distance to the target surface, Optics to covert
horizontal distance to vertical distance

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 What is a Tactile Sensor?
 Human sense of touch is a marvellous phenomenon and scientists
have a real challenge in developing robot fingers that can actually
“feel” the difference between various textures and surface shapes.
 One of the forms of tactile sensor uses polyvinylidene fluoride
(PVDF) sheet which has piezoelectric quantities. A soft film is
sandwiched between two layers of PVDF. The soft film transmits
vibrations. The principle used in this case is both piezo-electric and
its reverse effect.
 AC voltage is supplied to the lower layer (i.e., which is a piezo-
electric material and as a result generates vibrations (reverse of
piezo-electric effect)). These vibrations are picked up by the soft film
and transmitted to the upper layer which converts these vibration to
alternate voltage (piezo-electric effect).
 Cont...

Figure 17: Tactile Sensor.

 Cont...
 What is a Strain Gauge?
 In 1843, C. Wheatstone described the effect of the change of the
resistance in an electrical conductor due to the effects of mechanical
stress.
 A Strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance varies with applied force;
It converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in
electrical resistance which can then be measured.
 When external forces are applied to a stationary object, stress and
strain are the result. Stress is defined as the object's internal
resisting forces, and strain is defined as the displacement and
deformation that occur.
 Positive strain means the resistance goes up.
 Negative strain means the resistance goes down.
 Change in length – change in resistance – change in voltage
 Cont...
 The strain gauge is one of the most important sensor of the electrical
measurement technique applied to the measurement of mechanical
quantities.
 As their name indicates, they are used for the measurement of strain.
As a technical term "strain" consists of tensile and compressive
strain, distinguished by a positive or negative sign.
 Strain gauge applications: -
 Stress on railway lines
 Stresses on aircraft wing deflection
 Aircraft component testing
 Rotational strain on turbines, wheels, fans, propellers and motors
 Testing ships hulls
 Testing structural components for bridges and buildings
 Automotive testing
 Cont...

Figure 18: Strain Gauge.

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Figure 19: Mechanical Principle of Strain Gauge.

 What is a Gyroscope sensor?
 Gyroscopes or gyros, are devices that measure or maintain rotational
motion. MEMS (microelectromechanical system) gyros are small,
inexpensive sensors that measure angular velocity.
 The units of angular velocity are measured in degrees per second
(°/s) or revolutions per second (RPS). Angular velocity is simply a
measurement of speed of rotation.
 Gyros can be used to determine orientation and are found in most
autonomous navigation systems. For example, if you want to balance
a robot, a gyroscope can be used to measure rotation from the
balanced position and send corrections to a motor.
 The primary hardware connections to use a gyro are power and a
communication interface. As always, refer to the sensor datasheet for
all of the information on specifications and example connections.
 Cont...
 Working Principle of Gyroscope sensor: -
 When things rotate around an axis they have called angular velocity.
A spinning wheel can be measured in revolutions per second (RPS)
or degrees per second (°/s).
 If you attach the sensor to the wheel shown above, you can measure
the angular velocity of the z axis of the gyro. The other two axes
would not measure any rotation.
 Gyros are often used on objects that are not spinning very fast at all.
Aircrafts (hopefully) do not spin. Instead they rotate a few degrees
on each axis. By detecting these small changes gyros help stabilize
the flight of the aircraft.
 Also, note that the acceleration or linear velocity of the aircraft does
not affect the measurement of the gyro. Gyros only measure angular
velocity.
 Cont...

Figure 24: Gyroscope sensor.