THE CELL Cell Theory

A cell is defined as the basic unit of life OR a cell is In 1839, Schleiden and Schwann together put their
defined as the basic unit structure and function in ideas of the discoveries made to come about the cell
theory.
living organisms.
The generally accepted portions of the modern Cell
Though, cells are the smallest, basic or fundamental Theory are as follows:
structures which form the building block of all - The cell is the basic unit structure and function
in living things.
living things but are capable of carrying out all the
- All cells arise from pre-existing cells through
life processes such as; taking in nutrients, expelling cellular division
waste, reproducing, etc. All living things are - All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
composed of cells. Some microscopic organisms, The Cell as a Unit of Life
such as bacteria and protozoa, are unicellular, The cell is considered as the basic working unit of
meaning they consist of a single cell. Plants, life since it is the most basic/fundamental unit from
animals, and fungi are multicellular; meaning they which all living things are built and each cell is
consist of many cells working together. capable of carrying out life processes. Living things
consisting of only one cell are called unicellular
The Discovery and Study of Cells
organisms and those containing many cells are
The discovery of cell was made in 1665 by English
called multicellular organisms.
scientist Robert Hooke. Hooke used a microscope
Classification of Cells
to observe a very thin section of cork and found that
All cells are classified or grouped basically into
the cork consisted of tiny rows of boxlike spaces
three (3) namely; Akaryotic cell, Prokaryotic cell
bound by walls. Hooke called the walled spaces of
and Eukaryotic cell.
cork as cell.
o Akaryotic cell: This is a cell that has no
At about the same time, the Dutch maker of
nucleus, cytoplasm or cell membrane. It has a
microscopes Anton van Leeuwenhoek pioneered
nucleic acid core (either DNA or RNA)
the invention of one of the best microscopes of the
surrounded by a protein coat. An organism
time. Using his invention, Leeuwenhoek was the
whose cells have no nucleus, cytoplasm or cell
first to observe, draw, and describe a variety of
membrane is called Akaryote. Example of
living organisms, including bacteria gliding in
Akaryote is virus
saliva, one-celled organisms moving about in pond
o Prokaryotic cell: This is a cell characterised by
water, and sperm swimming in semen.
absence of definite nucleus and other
Other scientists who made detail study of cell
include Mathias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor membrane-bound organelles. Their
Schwann. Mathias J Schleiden (1838), a German genetic/nuclear material (DNA) is organised at
botanist discovered that all plants are organisms
one place but not bounded by nuclear membrane
made up of many cells.
Theodor Schwann (1839), a German zoologist and is called nucleoid. An organism whose cell
discovered that all animals are organisms made of is characterised by absence of a definite nucleus
many cells.
or any other membrane-bound organelles is

1
 called Prokaryote. Examples of Prokaryotes are - Their nucleic acids are surrounded by a
bacteria, cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). protective protein coat called a capsid.
o Eukaryotic cell: This is a cell with definite - Some viruses are enclosed in an outer lipid
(membrane-bound) nucleus and other membrane called envelope.
membrane-bound organelles, e.g. plant cells, - Viruses vary in shape. Some are rod-shaped
animal cells and fungi cells. An organism whose (tobacco mosaic virus), polyhedral or many-
cell contains definite (membrane-bound) sided (herpes virus), helical/spiral (mumps
nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles virus) etc.
is called Eukaryote. Examples of Eukaryotes A labelled drawing of a virus (bacteriophage)
are plants, animals, fungi and protoctists
(unicellular organisms such as Amoeba,
Euglena).

VIRUSES
Viruses are tiny particles that are extremely smaller
than bacteria and can be seen only under an electron
microscope. They vary in size from the largest
poxviruses of about 450nm in length to the smallest
polioviruses of about 30nm. The basic unit of virus
is known as virion.
Viruses do not fit into the classification of living
organisms. This is because; they do not have
nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane which are
the characteristics of living organisms and at times
can be crystallised like non-living chemical. Hence
viruses are not cells but particles.
Viruses however, can reproduce but only inside a BACTERIA
living cell or tissue and can be regarded as living o Bacteria (Singular: bacterium) are the smallest
things. Therefore, the viruses are seen by the single-celled organisms of about only 1µm in
biologists to be bordering between non-living and diameter and are visible only under a
living things. microscope.
Structure/Characteristics of Viruses o They are found almost everywhere, thus, in both
- They are much smaller than cells or bacteria. fresh and salt water, in soil, in the air, on and in
- They exist as non-living (particles) outside a the bodies of animals and plants.
host cell but as living things inside a host cell. o They are surrounded by a protective cell wall
- Viruses contain nucleic acids core of either made of peptidoglycan/murein.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA o The cell wall is covered by a slimy substance
(ribonucleic acid) but not both. called capsule, which gives extract protection.

2
o Inside the cell wall is the cell membrane, which Classification of Bacteria Base on Their Shape
surrounds the cytoplasm Bacteria can be divided into four major groups
according to shape
o Bacteria cells lack definite nucleus but has
- A spherical cell is called a Coccus (Cocci).
nuclear material (single, circular chromosome) - A rod-shaped cell is called a Bacillus (Bacilli).
at the center of the cell called nucleoid. - A spiral or coiled cell is called a Spirillum
(Spirilla).
o They have no membrane-bound organelles such
- A comma-shaped cell is called Vibrio (Vibrios).
as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and Although bacteria single-celled, some form colonies
chloroplasts in their cytoplasm, hence, are called in the shape of chains or clumps. For example;
- Cocci are found as single cells (monococci), in
prokaryotes.
pairs (diplococci), in chains (streptococci), and
o Small ribosomes are scattered throughout the in grapelike clusters (staphylococci).
cytoplasm of the bacteria cell. - Bacilli are single cells, in pairs (diplobacilli), or
o Many bacteria have very thin whip-like in chains (streptobacilli).
- Spirilla and Vibrios exist only as single cells.
structure called flagella with which they move.
Others move by gliding on a slimy substance Importance of Bacteria (Prokaryotes)
o Cause fermentation and are useful in cheese,
which they secrete. The flagella may be attached
butter and yoghurt making.
to only one end, both ends or found all around
o For nitrogen fixation.
the bacteria cell.
o For sewage treatment.
A labelled drawing of a bacterium o Cause disease.
o Use in wine and beer brewery.
o Cause decaying of organic matter, thus recycle
nutrients.
o Use in production of drugs.
o Some intestinal bacteria synthesise vitamin K
and others produce the enzyme cellulase to
digest cellulose.

THE STRUCTURE OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS

o The basic components of eukaryotic cell are cell
membrane, cytoplasm and the nucleus.
o The cell membrane is a thin, flexible and semi-
permeable layer that surrounds the entire cell
(encloses the cytoplasm, nucleus and other
organelles.
o The cytoplasm is made up of the cytosol (jelly-
like watery fluid) containing living structures
called organelles, excluding nucleus. It also
contains extensive network of tiny protein fibres

3
 called cytoskeleton. It is found between the cell phospholipids with protein molecules embedded
membrane and the nucleus. in them, giving it the fluid-mosaic model. It also
contains smaller amounts of cholesterol and
o The nucleus is the largest, double membrane
glycolipids. Each phospholipid molecule has a
bound organelle in animal cell. It is spherical in head and two tails. The head is made up of
shape and located centrally in cell. phosphate and is hydrophilic (water-loving). The
tails are made up of fatty acid and are hydrophobic
A labelled drawing of animal cell (water-hating). In the bilayer, the phospholipids are
arranged in such a way that the hydrophilic heads
are attracted to water and lies on both the inner and
outer surfaces of the membrane. The hydrophobic
tails repels water and line up in the centre/middle of
the membrane.
The membrane protein are of two distinct types
namely; integral proteins and peripheral proteins.
- The integral proteins are firmly inserted into the
lipid bilayer.
- Some integral proteins protrude from one
membrane face only, but most are trans-
membrane proteins that span the entire
A labelled drawing of plant cell membrane and protrude on both sides. Trans-
membrane proteins are mainly involved in
transport functions. Some cluster together to
form channels through which small water-
soluble molecules or ions can move, thus by
passing the lipid part of the membrane. Others
act as carriers that bind to a substance and move
it through the membrane. The proteins that face
only the external environment act as receptors
(specific recognition sites) for hormones and
other chemical messengers.
- Peripheral proteins are not embedded in the
lipid bilayer but are loosely attached to the
integral proteins or membrane lipids on the
inner and outer faces of the membrane.
Peripheral proteins include a network of
Plasma membrane filaments that help support the membrane from
its cytoplasmic side. Some are enzymes and
Plasma membrane is a thin, flexible semi-permeable
others are involved in mechanical functions
structure that surrounds/bounds the cytoplasm and
such as changing cell shape during cell division
all its contents. It consists of bilayer (two layers) of
and muscle contraction.

4
A labelled drawing of the fluid-mosaic model of the wall is made of chitin. Cellulose and chitin are both
cell membrane
polysaccharides and are insoluble.
Functions of cell wall
- Protects the cell
- Support and give shape to the cell
- It is permeable and allows free movement of
substances into and out of the cell without being
selective.

ORGANELLES
An organelle is a specialised structure within a cell,
bounded by a membrane and performs a particular
Functions of cell membrane
- It controls/regulates the movement of function within the cell. The organelles are nucleus,
substances into and out of the cell. mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes,
- It protects the inner content of the cell. Golgi bodies, lysosomes, centrioles, vacuoles,
The Cytoplasm chloroplasts and cytoskeleton. However,
The cytoplasm is made up of the cytosol (jelly-like chloroplasts are specific to only plant cells.
watery fluid containing living components and non-
Nucleus
living components). The living components are
- Nucleus is a round or spherical structure found
membrane bound structures called organelles,
in all eukaryotic cells, except in matured
excluding nucleus. The non-living components are
erythrocytes (red blood cells).
called cell inclusions. It also contains extensive
- In animal cell, nucleus is the largest organelle
network of tiny protein fibres called cytoskeleton.
and is located at the centre of the cell.
It is found between the cell membrane and the
- It is surrounded by a double membrane called
nucleus. The organelles and other substances move
nuclear membrane.
about in the cytoplasm by cytoplasmic streaming.
- The nuclear membrane has tiny pores called
Cytoplasmic streaming also called cyclosis is the
nuclear pores, which allows passage of some
circulatory mass movement/flow of cytoplasm with
substances between the nucleus and the
a cell.
cytoplasm.
Functions of cytoplasm
- Inside the nucleus is a dark, spherical structure
- Supports organelles in the cell.
called nucleolus and a fluid content called
- Site for most chemical reactions
- Transports substances/materials in the cell. nucleoplasm

The cell wall - Within the nucleoplasm is found thread-like

The cell wall is a rigid structure which surrounds structures called chromosomes, which contains

the cell membrane of plants and fungi. The plant the genetic information called DNA

cell wall is made mainly of cellulose; and fungi cell (deoxyribonucleic acid)

5
 A labelled drawing of nucleus A labelled drawing of mitochondrion

Functions of Mitochondria
Functions of nucleus
- It synthesizes energy ATP for general need of
- Responsible for reproduction (cell division).
the cell.
- Contains chromosomes with DNA which
transmits hereditary information. Ribosomes
- Controls the activities of all cell (i.e. DNA is o Ribosomes are minute spherical organelles
organised into genes which control all activities found in large numbers in the cytoplasm of all
of the cell) cells.
o They formed in the nucleolus of the nucleus.
- It is the centre for formation of mRNA which
contains instructions for making specific o Some ribosomes occur free in the cytoplasm
proteins. whilst others are found attached to endoplasmic
- The nucleolus in the nucleus manufactures reticulum.
ribosomes. o They are composed of RNA and proteins
subunits.
Mitochondria
Functions of Ribosomes
o Mitochondria are minute spherical or sausage-
- They serve as the site for protein synthesis
shape organelles in the cytoplasm.
(protein production).
o Each mitochondrion is bounded by double
- They are associated with the production of
membrane separated by a fluid-filled space. The
spindle fibres in cell division.
inner membrane is folded into cristae. The
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
cristae provide large surface area for respiratory
o Endoplasmic reticulum is a network of
enzymes (ATP synthase). The enzymes are
membranes forming flattened sacs or tubules
involved in the release of energy in aerobic
called cisternae.
respiration.
o They are in the cytoplasm of the cells. There are
o The inner part of mitochondrion is filled with a
two types of endoplasmic reticulum; smooth
fluid called matrix. This contains DNA,
endoplasmic reticulum and rough
enzymes (carboxylase) and ribosomes.
endoplasmic reticulum.
o Mitochondria are sometimes described as the
o The rough endoplasmic reticulum continuous
‘power house’ of the cell. Most active cell types
with the nuclear membrane and has rough
such as sperm, liver and muscle cells have
surface due to the presence of ribosomes.
numerous mitochondria.

6
 o The smooth endoplasmic reticulum has no Golgi apparatus/Golgi body
ribosome attached to their surface and this gives o These are stacks of flattened membrane-bound
them a smooth appearance. sacs called cisternae (sing. cisterna) with a
o The endoplasmic reticulum divides the cluster of vesicles at the edges.
cytoplasm into separate compartments, allowing o They are present in the cytoplasm of all
chemical reactions to take place without eukaryotic cells but absent in prokaryotes
interference. (bacteria).
A label drawing of rough endoplasmic reticulum o Their size and position in the cell is variable.
A labelled drawing of Golgi body

A labelled drawing of smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Function of Golgi Bodies
- Golgi bodies produce cell (plasma) membranes.
- They are involved in secretion and packaging of
complex carbohydrates and proteins.
Lysosomes
o Lysosomes are small membranous vesicles
formed in Golgi apparatus and are present in the
cytoplasm of most eukaryotic cells (abundant in
Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum
animal cells).
- They temporarily collect and store synthesised o It is spherical, fluid-filled and bounded by a
materials. single membrane.
o They contain digestive enzymes called
- They give mechanical support to the cytoplasm.
lysozymes.
- The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
Functions of Lysosomes
produces proteins (enzymes).
- They provide defence by digestion foreign
- The RER serve a supporting platform for the
substances (bacteria).
ribosomes - They recycles/destroys worn out organelles a
- The RER also transfers proteins made by the process known as autophagy.
- The lysosomes also destroy themselves (self-
ribosomes through the cisternae from one cell to
destruction) and this is known as autolysis.
another. - They contain digestive enzymes which break
- The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is the down food within the cell.
site for lipids and steroid synthesis.
- The smooth endoplasmic reticulum also
detoxifies harmful substances (alcohol).

7
 Chloroplast Plastids
- Chloroplast is an organelle found in the cells of Plastids are types of organelles, structures that carry
plants and out specialized functions in the cell. Three kinds of
- Chloroplasts are disc-shaped/oval shaped and plastids are important here. Chloroplasts contain
about 4 to 6 micrometers in diameter. chlorophylls and carotenoid pigments; they are the
- They occur most abundantly in leaf cells site of photosynthesis, the process in which light
- Each chloroplast is enclosed by a double energy from the sun is fixed as chemical energy in
membrane. the bonds of various carbon compounds. Leucoplasts,
- It is filled with a fluid matrix called the stroma. which contain no pigments, are involved in the
- Within the stroma is a network of membranous synthesis of starch, oils, and proteins. Chromoplasts
interconnected discs called thylakoids.
- Many of the thylakoids are stacked to form manufacture carotenoids.
granum (plural: grana). Cytoskeleton
- Thylakoids contains the chlorophyll (green This consists of extensive network of tiny protein
pigment) which traps light energy for fibres. It includes; microfilaments, microtubules,
photosynthesis. centrosome and cell extensions (microvilli, cilia and
- The light energy captured by the chlorophyll is flagella).
converted to ATP in a series of chemical Microfilaments – are smallest fibres. They provide
reactions that take place in the grana. structural support, maintain the characteristic shape
- Chloroplasts also contain small starch grains of cell and permit contraction, e.g. actin in muscle
that temporarily store the products of cells.
photosynthesis. Microtubules – are the largest contractile protein
A labelled drawing of chloroplast fibres that are involved in the movement of;
organelles within the cell, cell extensions and
chromosomes during cell division.
Centrosome – directs the organisation of
microtubules within the cell. It consists of pairs of
centrioles (small cluster of microtubules) and plays
an important role in cell division by forming spindle
fibres.
Cell extensions – these projects from the plasma
membrane in some types of cell and their main
components are microtubules which allow
movement. Cell extensions include;
✓ Microvilli – e.g. absorptive cells that line the
Vacuole small intestine. They increase surface area for
- Vacuoles are membrane-bound cavities filled absorption.
✓ Cilia – e.g. microscopic hair-like projections
with cell sap.
that line the inner surface of respiratory tract.
- The cell is made up of water containing They move upwards to bring out mucus from
various dissolved sugars, salts, and other the lungs
✓ Flagella – single long whip-like projection, e.g.
chemicals.
tail of sperm cell for movement.
- The membrane of vacuole is called tonoplast.

8
Cell inclusions Examples of specialised plant cell and their
o Cell inclusions are the non-living substances functions are;
Specialised cells Functions
found in cells.
Palisade mesophyll cell Responsible for carrying out
o They are not membrane-bound and exist in (photosynthetic cell) photosynthesis
soluble form in the vacuoles, but as insoluble Spongy mesophyll cell For gaseous exchange
Leaf epidermal cell Protect the leaf
substances in the cytoplasm of plant and animal
Meristematic cell Divides to produce other
cells. cells
Examples of cell inclusions are; Xylem cell (vessel Transport water and mineral
- Food substances such as carbohydrates, element) salts from the root
Phloem cell (sieve Translocate manufactured
proteins, vitamins, fats and oils.
tube) food from the leaves
- Minerals (salts) such as silica, calcium
carbonate and calcium oxalate. Sperm Cells
- Respiratory gases such as oxygen and carbon A perm cell consists of three (3) main parts; the
dioxide. head, middle piece and a tail.
- The head is oval shaped. It contains nucleus and
- Waste materials such as tannins, resins, gums
acrosome.
and alkaloids. - Middle piece is contains numerous
mitochondria.
SPECIALISED CELLS - The tail is long and slender. It lashes to enable
Specialised cell is a cell that is structurally adapted the sperm swim to the egg.
(modified) to perform a specific function. These - Acrosome is located at the anterior of the sperm

cells differ in shape and size. Some are long, flat head and contains hydrolytic enzymes which

and thin; others are spherical, spindle-shaped or help in the penetration of the layers surrounding

cylindrical. the egg immediately before fertilisation

Examples of animal specialised cells and their - Mitochondria in the middle piece produce
functions are; energy in the form of ATP which is used by the
Specialised cells Functions
tail to propel the sperm to the egg.
Sperm cell Reproduction
Red Blood Cells
Ovum (egg cell) Reproduction
- Red blood cells (RBC’s) are biconcave disc-
Red blood cell Transport oxygen and carbon shape cells found in the plasma
dioxide - They appear yellowish when single and reddish
when in mass.
White blood cell Defends the body against
- Each red blood cell is bounded by elastic plasma
pathogens membrane, allowing it to squeeze through
Muscle cell Bring about movement capillaries.
- They have no nucleus and most organelles
Nerve cell (neurone) Receive and transmit impulses
(mitochondria). This increase their surface area
Rod For vision in dim light to trap more oxygen
Cone For vision in bright light

9
 - The red blood cells are composed of protein and Leaf Epidermal Cells
iron compound called haemoglobin which has a - They are sheets of transparent, closely packed cells
high affinity for oxygen. found on the surfaces of leaf.
- The haemoglobin combines with oxygen in the - Their transparent nature makes it possible for light
lungs and it’s transported in the form of to pass through the leaf to get to the spongy and
oxyhaemoglobin.
palisade cells for photosynthesis to occur.
Nerve Cells (Neurons)
- Waxy cuticles cover the walls of epidermal cells to
- Nerve cells (neurons) are the microscopic cells
protect them against bacteria invasion. It also
that make up the brain, spinal cord, and nerves
- A neuron contains; cell body, dendrites and axon. prevents water loss from the plant through
- Cell body contains a dense cytoplasm and transpiration.
nucleus. Xylem Cells
- Dendrites are fibres that receive impulses from - Xylem cells are long and cylindrical in shape
other neurons
- They are joined end to end and these allow water to
- Axons are fibres that send impulses to other
neurons flow in a continuous column.

Palisade Mesophyll Cells - The absence of walls at the end of the xylem

- Palisade mesophyll cells are cylindrical closely vessels gives uninterrupted flow of water from the

packed cells with numerous chloroplasts. roots to the leaves.

- The chloroplast contains chlorophyll (a green - The cells are also perforated at particular points in

pigment) which traps light energy from the sun for the lignified walls to permit lateral flow of water.

photosynthesis. Phloem Cells

- They are located below epidermal cells on the - They are made of columns of specialised cells for
upper surface of the leaf. translocation of manufactured food.

Spongy Mesophyll Cells - They consist of sieve tube element and companion

- Are irregular shaped cells and are located on the cells.

underside of the leaf. TISSUES

- Have intercellular air spaces between them A tissue is a group of cells similar in structure that
performs the same specific function.
- The air spaces allow diffusion of gases between the
Examples of animal tissues
atmosphere and the palisade mesophyll.
Name of tissue Components Some functions
- They have few chloroplast which contain
Blood tissue Fluid/plasma and Transport O2 and
chlorophyll for absorbing sunlight for corpuscles/cells CO2
Nerve tissue Nerve cells Receive and
photosynthesis
Transmit impulses
Root Tip Cells Skeletal tissue Osteocytes Provides support
They are meristematic in nature. That is, they have and movement
Muscle tissues Muscle fibres Contract and bring
the ability to divide and give rise to different about movement
tissues. Epithelial Continuous layer Covers internal and
tissue of epithelial cells external surfaces

10
Examples of plant tissues Organ system
Name of tissue Components Some functions Organ system is a group of different organs that
works together to perform a specific or common
Palisade mesophyll Palisade Produces food
(photosynthetic) mesophyll cells (photosynthesis) function.
tissue
Examples of organ system in animals
Spongy mesophyll Spongy Gaseous
Name of Main organs Functions
tissue mesophyll cells exchange system
Epidermal tissue Sheets of Covers the Digestive Stomach, liver, Digests and
epidermal cells surface of plants system intestines, absorbs food
pancreas
Xylem/conducting Vessel elements Transport water
tissue and mineral Reproductive Testis, ovaries, Produces offspring
salts system uterus (young ones)
Circulatory Heart, arteries, Carries food and
Phloem/conducting Sieve tube Translocate
system veins oxygen round the
tissue manufactured body
food
Nervous Brain, spinal Receives and
Strengthening Sclerenchyma Provide support system cord nerves transmits messages
tissue for the plant (impulses)
Sensory Eyes, ears, Detects stimuli
system skin, tongue,
Organs nose
Excretory Kidneys, Remove some
Organ is group of different tissues that work system bladder, liver, waste substances
together to perform one or more specific functions. skin, lungs from the body
Respiratory Nose, lungs Gaseous exchange
Examples of organs in animals system
o Heart – pumps blood
o Lungs – gaseous exchange Levels of organisation in living thing
o Stomach – stores and digest food In multicellular organism there are five (5) levels of
o Ear – hearing and balancing
organisation:
o Liver – produces bile and detoxifies food
o Ovary – for production of ovum (egg cell)
o Testis – for production of sperms and hormones.
Examples of Living things at the various levels of
o Eye – for vision
organisation
o Kidney – for excretion of waste substances
o Cellular level: e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium,
o Skin – for protection
Euglena, Volvox, bacterium, etc.
Examples of organs in plants
o Tissue level: e.g. Hydra and Obelia.
o Leaf – production of food and also for gaseous
o Organ level: e.g. Onion bulb, rhizome
exchange.
o Stem – support the leaves and flowers o Organ system: e.g. Plants such as pawpaw, fern,

o Root – anchors (holds) the plant firmly into the moss, etc. and animals such as rabbit, human,

soil. etc.

11
 Forms in which cells can exist o Temperature: Increase in temperature increase
o Single and free living e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium, the kinetic energy of molecules and hence this
speed up the rate of diffusion.
Euglena and Chlamydomonas
o Size or nature of particles: Smaller particles
o Colony: e.g. Volvox, Pandorina, and
diffuse faster than larger particles. Hence the
Staphylococcus
smaller the particles the faster the rate of
o Filament: e.g. Spirogyra
diffusion and the larger the particles the slower
o Part of living organism: e.g. cheek cell, onion
the rate of diffusion.
cell, root tip cell and leaf epidermal cell.
o Permeability of membrane: Permeable
membrane allows molecules to diffuse through
MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES INTO AND
them faster.
OUT OF CELL
o Distance across which molecule move: The rate
Useful substances needed by cells move into the cell
of diffusion falls in proportion with the square
while waste and toxic substances move out of the
of the distance.
cell. For this movement to occur the cell wall and cell
Examples of diffusion in animals
membrane must be permeable. The major ways
- Diffusion of oxygen (O2) into the blood in the
substances move into and out of cells includes;
lungs
- Diffusion
- Diffusion of carbon dioxide (CO2) out of the
- Osmosis
blood in the lungs.
- Active transport
- Diffusion of oxygen (O2) out of the blood into
- Bulk transport
the tissues
Diffusion - Diffusion of carbon dioxide (CO2) out of the
Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a tissues into the blood.
region of higher concentration to a region of lower - Exchange of digested food molecules and waste
concentration. The movement of molecules continue products between mother and foetus (child).
until they are evenly distributed (equilibrium is - Exchange of O2 and CO2 between mother and
attained). foetus.
- Diffusion of O2 across the surface membrane of
- Diffusion will occur if there is concentration
unicellular organism into the cytoplasm and
gradient. CO2 out, e.g. Amoeba.
- Concentration gradient is the difference in Examples of diffusion in plants
concentration of molecules between two regions. - Diffusion of CO2 into the leaf and O2 out of leaf
- It occurs passively (i.e. without the use of energy) stomata during the day.
- Diffusion of O2 into the leaf and CO2 out of leaf
and usually occurs in gases or solution.
stomata during the night.
Factors that affect the rate of diffusion - Diffusion of some mineral salts from soil into
o Concentration gradient: The steeper the root hairs.
concentration gradient, the faster the rate of - Diffusion of water vapour out of leaf through
diffusion. stomata (transpiration).

12
Experiment to demonstrate diffusion in air o The tendency of water molecules to move from
1. Obtain a bottle of highly scented perfume. one region to another is termed water potential.
2. Stand at the back corner of the classroom after Water always moves from high water potential
closing all the doors and windows. to low water potential.
3. Move to the opposite corner of the classroom and o Solute potential is the extent to which water
observe what happens. potential is reduced by solute molecules.
o Observation: It is observed that an observer at
Factors that affect the rate of osmosis
opposite corner of the classroom smells the scent
o Semi-permeable membrane nature
of the perfume after some time. The molecules of
o Concentration gradient: The steeper the
the perfume moved from where they were opened
concentration gradient of the molecules, the
to fill the entire room form uniform mixture with
faster the rate of osmosis.
the molecules of the air in the room.
o Temperature: Increase in temperature increase
o Conclusion: Diffusion occurs in air.
the kinetic energy of molecules and hence this
Experiment to demonstrate diffusion in liquid speed up the rate of osmosis.
3
1. Half fill a 250cm beaker with water.
Experiment to demonstrate osmosis in non-living
2. Put a crystal of potassium permanganate gently at
tissue
the bottom of the beaker containing water.
3. Leave the beaker undisturbed on a flat table for 1. Fill a beaker with water.
about 30 minutes. 2. Tie visking tubing or cellophane across the end
4. Observe the water in the beaker every 10 minutes. of a thistle funnel.
o Observation: It is observed that the particles of 3. Half-fill the thistle funnel up to the stem with a
potassium permanganate spread uniformly in the concentrated sugar solution.
water. The water turns purple due to diffusion of 4. Mark the level of the solution on the stem with
the particles of potassium permanganate. Indian ink.
o Conclusion: Diffusion occurs in liquid. 5. Lower the thistle funnel into the beaker of water

Osmosis and clamp it with stand.

Osmosis is the passage of water molecules (solvent) 6. Observe the level of solution in the funnel at

across a partially permeable (semi-permeable) regular time intervals of about 6 hours.

membrane from a dilute solution to a more Experiment to demonstrate osmosis in living

concentrated solution. OR. Osmosis is the movement tissue
of water molecules from a region of high water 1. Peel a tuber of yam and cut it into three cubes.
concentration to a region of low water concentration 2. Make a large cavity (hole) in the centre of each
across a semi-permeable membrane. of the yam cube and label them A, B and C.
o When there is a concentration gradient separated 3. Put one of the yam cubes labelled C in boiling
by a semi-permeable membrane, water molecules
water for about 5 minutes to kill the living cells.
will move until equilibrium is established.

13
4. Half fill the cavity of yam A with distilled water, Type of solutions
and that of yam B and C with concentrated salt There are three main types of solution namely;
solution. Mark the initial levels with pins. hypertonic, hypotonic and isotonic solutions.
5. Place the set ups in separate Petri-dishes containing o Hypertonic solution is a solution which has a
a known volume of distilled water. higher concentration of dissolved substances
6. Observe what happens in the cubes after 6 hours. than that of the other solution it is being
o Observation: compared.
- The level of distilled water in the cavity of yam A o Hypotonic solution is a solution which has a
remains the same. This is because the lower concentration of dissolved substances
than that of the other solution it is being
concentration of water in the Petri-dish and the
compared.
yam are the same (isotonic). o Isotonic solution is a solution which has the
- The level of concentrated salt solution in the cavity same concentration of dissolved substances as
the other solution it is being compared.
of yam B rises with a decrease in water in Petri-
Mechanism of osmosis in animal cell
dish. This is due to the movement of water from
o When an animal cell such as red blood cell, is
the Petri-dish (dilute solution) through the yam
placed in isotonic solution (0.85% normal
(semi-permeable membrane) into concentrated salt
saline), the movement of the amount of water on
solution in the yam cavity.
both side of the membrane remains the same
- The level of concentrated salt solution in yam C
and hence the size of the cell remains the same.
remains the same. This is because the yam is boiled
This is because the concentration of the water
and the cells are dead and therefore the membranes
molecules in the solution is the same as the
do not serve as semi-permeable membranes.
water molecules in the red blood cell.
o Conclusion: Osmosis has taken place in in yam B
o When the red blood cell is placed in a solution
(living tissue) and the water molecules move from
of lower concentration of dissolved substances
a dilute solution to a concentrated solution through
(hypotonic solution e.g. distilled water), the cell
a semi-permeable membrane.
will gain water by osmosis. The cell swells up
Examples of osmosis in plants and animals
and eventually burst as water continues to move
o Absorption of water by the root hairs of plants.
into the cell. The cell burst because of the
o Movement of water from the roots to the stem and
leaves. absence of cell wall. This process is known as
o The regulation of water content in plant cells to haemolysis.
maintain turgidity.
o When the red blood cell is placed in a solution
o Movement of water into the cytoplasm of protoctist
such as Amoeba. whose concentration of dissolved substances is
o Re-absorption water in the nephron of mammals higher than that of the cell (hypertonic solution
during urine formation. e.g. 3% salt solution), the cell loses water by
o Absorption of water in the colon (large intestine) of
osmosis. This causes the cell to shrink and
mammals.
wrinkle, a process known as crenation.

14
Effects of osmosis on animal cell Effects of osmosis on a plant cell

Mechanism of osmosis in plant cell

o When a plant cell, is placed in isotonic solution, the
movement of the amount of water on both side of
the membrane remains the same and hence the size
of the cell remains the same. This is because the Active Transport
concentration of the water molecules in the Active transport is the movement of molecules from
solution is the same as the water molecules in the a region of low concentration to a region of high
cell. concentration across a living membrane using

o When a plant cell is placed in a solution of lower energy from the cell. It involves molecules moving

concentration of dissolved substances (hypotonic against a concentration gradient.

solution e.g. distilled water), the cell will gain Examples of Active Transport in Animals and
water by osmosis. The cell swells up as water Plants
continues to move into sap in the vacuole. The cell o Absorption of some digested food materials in
does not burst because of the presence of cellulose the small intestine of mammals.
cell wall. Water pressure forces the contents of the o Reabsorption of sugar and some salts in the
cell against the cell wall. This pressure that the nephron of mammals during urine formation.
water exerts against the cell wall is known as o Absorption of some mineral salts from the soil
turgor pressure. The turgor pressure helps to keep by root hairs of plants
the leaves and stem of young plants stiff and
Factors that Affect the Rate of Active Transport
upright. The pressure exerted by the water against
o Temperature: Increase in temperature sets the
the cell wall cause the cell wall to fully stretch,
molecules in motion and hence, leads to
making the turgid.
increase in the rate of active transport.
o When a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic
solution, water moves out of the cell by osmosis o Oxygen: movement of molecules is against
and the cell becomes flabby or flaccid. As the cell concentration gradient and needs energy in
content loses water, the cytoplasm shrinks and the order to get the molecules moving from one
cell membrane detached from the cell wall. This
process is known as plasmolysis. region to another. This energy is provided
during cellular respiration where oxygen is

15
 used. Hence the presence of oxygen increases The process of phagocytosis
the rate of active transport while lack or absence
of oxygen slows the rate of active transport.

Bulk transport
Bulk transport is the movement of very large size
particles or substances in great quantities across the
Exocytosis
cell membrane. This allows droplets of liquids or
Exocytosis is the process by which cell rids off
food particles into the cell. Bulk transport involves;
materials by discharging it from vesicle at the cell
endocytosis and exocytosis.
surface.
Endocytosis OR. Exocytosis is the release to a cell surface of
Endocytosis is the process by which a cell substances such as waste or secretions through
membrane folds inward to take in large particles or vesicles. It occurs following the fusion of the
substances in great quantities into the cell. In this membrane surrounding the vesicles with the
process, the cell membrane folds inward and forms membrane forming the outer wall of the cell.
a sac to enclose the food particles. The sac pinches
Importance of Movement of Substances into and
off to form a cytoplasmic vesicle called vacuole.
Out of Cells
Endocytosis is divided into pinocytosis,
o It enables the cell to obtain nutrients.
phagocytosis and receptor-mediated endocytosis
o Enables the cell to excrete waste.
Pinocytosis o Enables the cell to secrete useful substances
Pinocytosis is the intake of liquids with solutes such as enzymes and antibodies.
(dissolved molecules) into the cell by folding the o For maintenance of suitable pH and ionic
cell membrane inwards to form a sac which concentration within the cell for enzyme activity
encloses the fluid. The sac later pinches off to form o To generate ionic gradient for nervous and
internal vesicle called vacuole, E.g. Amoeba and muscular activity.
embryonic cells. Diversity of Living Things
Phagocytosis
Diversity of living things is the wide range of
Phagocytosis is the process by which the cell takes
differences that exist among living things
in large food particles which cannot be absorbed by
(organisms). Living things differs in size, shape,
diffusion or active transport by folding the cell
colour, way of life and places in which they live
membrane inwards to form a sac. The sac encloses
(habitat).
the particles and later pinches off to form a vesicle
called vacuole. Characteristics of living things

There are certain basic characteristics that

distinguish living things from non-living things.

16
These are the seven life process namely: nutrition, Respiration is the release of energy from food with
respiration, excretion, irritability, movement, or without the use of oxygen. It consists of gaseous
growth and reproduction. exchange and internal (cellular or tissue)
respiration.
Nutrition
o Gaseous exchange is the intake of oxygen
Nutrition is the process by which living things
and the release of carbon dioxide across the
obtain or make food. This food serves as a source of
respiratory surface to the external
energy and materials for growth and maintenance.
environment. The respiratory surface may be
Plants make (manufacture) their own food using the cell surface membrane as in single-celled
water from the soil, carbon dioxide from the organism or specialised tissue such as the
atmospheric air, chlorophyll in the leaves and the alveoli in the lungs of mammals.
energy from the sunlight in a process called
o Internal or cellular respiration is the
photosynthesis. The formula for photosynthesis is:
enzymatic process involved in the
breakdown of food substances to release
energy within cells, with or without the use
of oxygen. When oxygen is used in the
Because plants and algae make their own food, their process, it is termed aerobic respiration
nutrition is called autotrophic. Their nutrition is and when the process occurs without the use
also termed holophytic because they use light of oxygen, it is termed anaerobic
energy for synthesis of food. The nutrition of respiration. The energy produced during
organisms that use energy from chemicals to make respiration is used for metabolic activities
their own food is called chemotrophic. such as movement, growth and other life
processes. Carbon dioxide and water are
Animals and some other living things cannot make
given out as waste products. The formula for
their own food and therefore feed on other animals,
aerobic respiration is: C6H12O6 + 6O2
on plants or both plants and animals. Their type of
6H2O +6CO2 + energy
nutrition is called heterotrophic. If they take
complex food into their bodies and then digest it Excretion
they are called holozoic. Some fungi such as
Excretion is the removal of waste metabolic
moulds digest the food outside their bodies before
products and excess substances from the body.
they absorb the digested products. This type of
These waste products could be toxic (poisonous) if
nutrition is termed saprophytic or saprotrophic.
allowed to accumulate in the body.
Respiration
o Mammals have four main excretory organs
namely; lungs, kidneys, liver and skin.

17
 - The lungs remove carbon dioxide and water. o Locomotion in animals is obvious and
differs from one animal to another.
- The kidneys remove nitrogenous waste such
Examples include swimming, flying,
ammonia, urea, uric acid and excess water
walking, running and jumping (leaping or
as urine.
hopping). Animal locomote in order that
- The liver removes bile pigment from the they may find food, water, shelter, a mate as
breakdown of haemoglobin in worn-out red well as avoid enemies.
blood cells.
o Plant movement is usually involves closure
- The skin removes salts (sodium chloride), of the leaves when disturbed (e.g. Mimosa),
water and traces of urea through the sweat growth of shoots towards light and growth
glands. of roots towards water.

o Plants excrete mainly carbon dioxide, Irritability

oxygen and water vapour which diffuse out
Irritability is the process by which living things are
through the stomata of leaves. Other
sensitive to and respond to stimuli (i.e. changes in
substances such as tannins, alkaloids, latex,
their surroundings). The organisms respond to
resins and gum are stored in harmless form
stimuli such as temperature, light, touch, sound,
in the stem or bark of woody plants and in
chemicals, pain and water.
temporary structures like leaves, fruits and
petals. When the temporary structures fall o Animals possess sensory cells which can
off, the excretory products are conveniently detect different types of stimuli to which
eliminated. In general, plants do not have they show quick response. Irritability
special excretory organs. usually results in animals moving away from
the stimuli if it is unfavourable or moving
o Simple organisms (e.g. unicellular
towards the stimuli if it is favourable.
organisms) excrete carbon dioxide by simple
diffusion out through the cell surface o Plants have no special sensory cells which
membrane. Nitrogenous wastes and excess detect stimuli and response is slow, except
water are removed by the contractile few sensitive plants such as Mimosa that can
vacuole, a process called osmoregulation. respond rapidly to stimuli. Plants respond to
stimuli such as light, water and gravity by
Movement
growing towards or away from the stimuli.
Movement is the change of location or position of They also respond to light, water and carbon
the whole body or part of the body of organism. dioxide by synthesizing food.
When the whole organism moves from one place to
another, it is termed locomotion.

18
Differences in irritability between animals and Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction which
plants involves the fusion of nuclei of male gamete
(sperm) and female gamete (egg or ovum) during
Irritability in Irritability in plants
animals fertilisation resulting in new individual. Most
animals reproduce sexually.
Have special sensory Have no special sensory
cells which detect cells
stimuli Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction
Response to the Response to stimuli is which occurs without the fusion of sex cells (male
stimuli is quick very slow except in
Mimosa and female gametes). More plants than animals can
Respond to stimuli by Respond to stimuli by reproduce asexually. Asexual reproduction occurs
moving growth
in different forms in various organisms. This
Response to the The response to the
stimuli is reversible stimuli is permanent (not includes;
reversible)
- Binary fission in unicellular organisms such as
Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena, Spirogyra, etc.
Growth
Growth is an irreversible increase in size and - Budding in fungi such as yeast, Hydra,
weight. Living things use food for producing living Bryophyllum, Obelia.
materials and increase their size. - Fragmentation in green algae such as

Most animals grow rapidly when young, then more Spirogyra.

slowly as they mature. Growth stops in animals - Spore formation in fungi such Rhizopus.
when they attain a certain size. However, some
- Encystment in Amoeba
body tissues are continually being renewed
throughout their lives. - Vegetative propagation in plant such as
banana, sugar cane, cassava, onion, ginger,
Plants continue to grow throughout their lives. They
cocoyam, etc.
do not have fixed number of parts and continually
grow new parts such as branches, roots, leaves,
flowers and fruits.

Reproduction
Reproduction is the process by which living
organisms produce new ones (individuals) of their
own kind. Living things reproduce in order to
ensure continual existence of their species. There
are two main types by which organisms reproduce
namely, sexual reproduction and asexual
reproduction.

19