LESSON 1

COMPLEX NUMBERS
Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Understand the similarities and differences between a real analysis and a
complex analysis, and
2. Apply the fundamental rules of algebra in evaluating complex numbers.

A complex number is any number of the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are

real numbers and 𝑖 is the imaginary unit. We denote any member of a set of
complex numbers by the complex variable 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦.
• The real part of 𝑧, denoted by 𝑅𝑒(𝑧), is 𝑥.
• The imaginary part of 𝑧, denoted by 𝐼𝑚(𝑧), is 𝑦.
• The imaginary unit 𝑖 is equal to √−1.

Note: 𝑖 = √−1 = 𝑖
2
𝑖2 = (√−1) = −1 = −1
𝑖3 = 𝑖2 ∙ 𝑖 = (−1) ∙ 𝑖 = −𝑖
𝑖4 = 𝑖2 ∙ 𝑖2 = (−1) ∙ (−1) = 1
𝑖5 = 𝑖4 ∙ 𝑖 = (1) ∙ 𝑖 = 𝑖
𝑖6 = 𝑖4 ∙ 𝑖2 = (1) ∙ (−1) = −1
𝑖7 = 𝑖4 ∙ 𝑖3 = (1) ∙ (−𝑖) = −𝑖
𝑖8 = 𝑖4 ∙ 𝑖4 = (1) ∙ (1) = 1
⋮ ⋮

Complex Conjugate, 𝒛̅. The complex conjugate of the complex number 𝑎 +

𝑖𝑏 is 𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏.

Illustration:
1. If 𝑧 = 3 + 𝑖7, then the complex conjugate 𝑧̅ = 3 − 𝑖7.
2. If 𝑧 = −5 − 𝑖, then the complex conjugate 𝑧̅ = −5 + 𝑖.
Equality. Two complex numbers 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 are
equal, 𝑧1 = 𝑧2 , if and only if 𝑅𝑒(𝑧1 ) = 𝑅𝑒(𝑧2 ) and 𝐼𝑚(𝑧1 ) = 𝐼𝑚(𝑧2 ).

Arithmetic Operations. Complex numbers obey the fundamental rules of

algebra.
• Addition (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏) + (𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑) = (𝑎 + 𝑐) + 𝑖(𝑏 + 𝑑)
• Subtraction (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏) − (𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑) = (𝑎 − 𝑐) + 𝑖(𝑏 − 𝑑)
• Multiplication (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏)(𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑) = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑖𝑎𝑑 + 𝑖𝑏𝑐 + 𝑖 2 𝑏𝑑
= 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑖𝑎𝑑 + 𝑖𝑏𝑐 + (−1)𝑏𝑑
= 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑖𝑎𝑑 + 𝑖𝑏𝑐 − 𝑏𝑑
= (𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑑) + 𝑖(𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)
𝑎+𝑖𝑏 𝑎+𝑖𝑏 𝑐−𝑖𝑑 (𝑎+𝑖𝑏)(𝑐−𝑖𝑑)
• Division = ∙ = (𝑐+𝑖𝑑)(𝑐−𝑖𝑑)
=
𝑐+𝑖𝑑 𝑐+𝑖𝑑 𝑐−𝑖𝑑
𝑎𝑐−𝑖𝑎𝑑+𝑖𝑏𝑐−𝑖 2 𝑏𝑑
𝑐 2 −𝑖𝑐𝑑+𝑖𝑐𝑑−𝑖 2 𝑑 2
=
𝑎𝑐−𝑖𝑎𝑑+𝑖𝑏𝑐−(−1)𝑏𝑑
𝑐 2 −𝑖𝑐𝑑+𝑖𝑐𝑑−(−1)𝑑 2
𝑎𝑐−𝑖𝑎𝑑+𝑖𝑏𝑐+𝑏𝑑
= 𝑐 2 −𝑖𝑐𝑑+𝑖𝑐𝑑+𝑑 2
=
(𝑎𝑐+𝑏𝑑)+𝑖(𝑏𝑐−𝑎𝑑)
𝑐 2 +𝑑 2

• Commutative Laws 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑧2 + 𝑧1
𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑧2 𝑧1
• Associative Laws 𝑧1 + (𝑧2 + 𝑧3 ) = (𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ) + 𝑧3
𝑧1 (𝑧2 𝑧3 ) = (𝑧1 𝑧2 )𝑧3
• Distributive Laws 𝑧1 (𝑧2 + 𝑧3 ) = 𝑧1 𝑧2 + 𝑧1 𝑧3

Example 1.1 Evaluate the following and write the answer in the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏.

1. 𝑖 4 + 2𝑖 3 − 3𝑖 2 + 6𝑖 − 1
= 1 + 2(−𝑖) − 3(−1) + 6𝑖 − 1
= 1 − 2𝑖 + 3 + 6𝑖 − 1
= (1 + 3 − 1) + 𝑖(−2 + 6)
= 3 + 𝑖4
2. 𝑖 191 − 2𝑖 99 + 5𝑖 32
= (𝑖 2 )95 ∙ 𝑖 − 2(𝑖 2 )49 ∙ 𝑖 + 5(𝑖 2 )16
= (−1)95 ∙ 𝑖 − 2(−1)49 ∙ 𝑖 + 5(−1)16
= (−1) ∙ 𝑖 − 2(−1) ∙ 𝑖 + 5(1)
= −𝑖 + 2𝑖 + 5
= 5 + 𝑖(−1 + 2)
=5+𝑖

3. 𝑖(2 − 𝑖) + 𝑖3(1 + 𝑖2)

= (𝑖2 − 𝑖 2 ) + (𝑖3 + 𝑖 2 6)
= [𝑖2 − (−1)] + [𝑖3 + (−1)(6)]
= 𝑖2 + 1 + 𝑖3 − 6
= (1 − 6) + 𝑖(2 + 3)
= −5 + 𝑖5

𝑖
4. 1+𝑖
𝑖 1−𝑖
= 1+𝑖 ∙ 1−𝑖
𝑖(1−𝑖)
= (1+𝑖)(1−𝑖)
𝑖−𝑖 2
= 1−𝑖+𝑖−𝑖 2
𝑖−(−1)
= 1−(−1)
𝑖+1
=
1+1
1+𝑖
= 2
1 1
= 2+𝑖2

1−5𝑖
5. 7 − (1 − 𝑖)(2 + 𝑖) +
𝑖
1−5𝑖 𝑖
= 7 − (2 + 𝑖 − 𝑖2 − 𝑖 2 ) + ∙𝑖
𝑖
(1−5𝑖)𝑖
= 7 − [2 + 𝑖 − 𝑖2 − (−1)] + 𝑖2
𝑖−5𝑖 2
= 7 − (2 + 𝑖 − 𝑖2 + 1) + 𝑖2
𝑖−5(−1)
= 7 − [(2 + 1) + 𝑖(1 − 2)] + (−1)
𝑖+5
= 7 − (3 − 𝑖) + (−1)
= 7 − (3 − 𝑖) − (5 + 𝑖)
 =7−3+𝑖−5−𝑖
= (7 − 3 − 5) + 𝑖(1 − 1)
= −1 + 𝑖0
= −1

Geometric Interpretation. A complex number 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 can be plotted as a point

(𝑥, 𝑦) in the complex plane or simply the 𝒛-plane. The horizontal axis is called
the real axis and the vertical axis is called the imaginary axis.

Modulus or Absolute Value. The modulus of 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, denoted by |𝑧| or

𝑟, is the real number
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
Geometrically, 𝑟 is the distance of point 𝑧 from the origin.

Argument or Phase. The argument of 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, denoted by arg 𝑧 or 𝜃, is

𝑦
𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
𝑥
Geometrically, 𝜃 is the directed angle from the positive x-axis to OP in the figure
below. Note that by convention, all angles should be measured in radians and is
positive in the counterclockwise sense.

O
 • Principal Argument, Arg 𝒛. The principal argument of 𝑧 is the
argument in the interval −𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋.

Note: For most computations, the principal argument, 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧, will be used
instead of the argument, 𝜃.

Recall From Trigonometry. Reference angle, 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓 , is the acute angle that the
given angle makes with the 𝑥-axis.

Source: omnicalculator.com

In order to compute for the argument, 𝜃, use the following equations:

Quadrant I: 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓
Quadrant II: 𝜃 = 𝜋 − 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓
Quadrant III: 𝜃 = 𝜋 + 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓
Quadrant IV: 𝜃 = 2𝜋 − 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓
In order to compute for the principal argument, 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧, use the following
equations:

Quadrant I: 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓

Quadrant II: 𝜃 = 𝜋 − 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓
Quadrant III: 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓 − 𝜋
Quadrant IV: 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = −𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓

Example 1.2. For the given complex number, plot 𝑧 in the complex plane.
Also, find the real and imaginary part of 𝑧, the modulus and the
argument of 𝑧, and the principal argument of 𝑧.

1. 𝑧 = 7 − 𝑖2

a. 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) = 7

b. 𝐼𝑚(𝑧) = −2

c. 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
= √(7)2 + (−2)2
= √49 + 4
= √53
 𝑦
d. 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓 = tan−1 (𝑥 )
2
= tan−1 (7), QIV
= 0.2783, QIV

𝜃 = 2𝜋 − 0.2783
= 6.0049

e. 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = −𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓
= −0.2783

5 1
2. 𝑧 = − − 𝑖
2 2

5
a. 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) = − 2

1
b. 𝐼𝑚(𝑧) = − 2

5 2 1 2
c. 𝑟 = √(− 2) + (− 2)
25 1
= √4 +4
26
= √4
√26
= 2
 1
d. 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓 = tan−1 ( 25 ), QIII
2
1
= tan−1 (5), QIII
= 0.1974, QIII

𝜃 = 𝜋 + 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓
= 𝜋 + 0.1974
= 3.3390

e. 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓 − 𝜋
= 0.1974 − 𝜋
= −2.9442

3. 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖2

a. 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) = 1

b. 𝐼𝑚(𝑧) = 2

c. 𝑟 = √(1)2 + (2)2
= √5
 2
d. 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓 = tan−1 (1), QI
= 1.1071, QI

𝜃 = 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓
= 1.1071

e. 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓
= 1.1071
 PROBLEM SET 1
COMPLEX NUMBERS
Evaluate the following.

(2−𝑖4)(3−𝑖)
1. 1+𝑖

2
2. (1−𝑖)(2+𝑖3)(2−𝑖4)
 1 1 2 5
( +𝑖 )−( −𝑖 )
3. 2
3
4 3 3
13 7
(1−𝑖 )+(− + )
4 3 3

For Problems 4 – 6, let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦. Find the indicated expression.

1
4. 𝑅𝑒 ( )
𝑧̅
5. 𝐼𝑚(3𝑧 − 2𝑧̅ + 𝑖)

𝑧
6. |1+𝑧̅ |
For Problems 7 and 8, find a complex number 𝑧 satisfying the given equation.

7. 𝑧 + 2𝑧̅ + 3 − 𝑖 = 0

1−𝑖2
8. 𝑧 − 2𝑧̅ = 1+𝑖7
For Problems 9 and 10, evaluate the given complex number and find the
modulus, the argument, and the principal argument of the final answer.

9. (1 − 𝑖)3

(2−𝑖5)+4𝑖 3
10. (2+𝑖)2
LESSON 2
POWERS AND ROOTS
Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Express a complex number 𝑧 in terms of its polar form, and

2. Calculate the powers and roots of 𝑧.

Polar Form. The rectangular form of a complex number can be easily expressed
in its polar form using the following relation:
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
{
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
Thus, a nonzero complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 can be written as 𝑧 =
(𝑟 cos 𝜃) + 𝑖(𝑟 sin 𝜃). The polar form of a complex number is expressed as
𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)

Multiplication and Division. For two complex numbers 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 +

𝑖 sin 𝜃1 ) and 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 ) in polar form, the multiplication and
division are as follows:

𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 [cos(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )]
𝑧1 𝑟
= 𝑟1 [cos(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )]
𝑧2 2

Moreover, |𝑧1 𝑧2 | = |𝑧1 ||𝑧2 |

𝑧 |𝑧 |
|𝑧1| = |𝑧1 |
2 2

arg(𝑧1 𝑧2 ) = arg 𝑧1 + arg 𝑧2

𝑧
arg (𝑧1 ) = arg 𝑧1 − arg 𝑧2
2
Example 2.1. Write the given complex number in polar form.

1. 𝑧 = −5

0
𝑟 = √(−5)2 + (0)2 𝜃 = tan−1 (5), −𝑥-axis
= √25 = 0, −𝑥-axis
=5 =𝜋

𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
= 5(cos 𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 𝜋)

2. 𝑧 = 2 − 𝑖2

2
𝑟 = √(2)2 + (−2)2 𝜃 = tan−1 (2), QIV
= √8 𝜋
= 4 , QIV
= 2√2 7𝜋
= 4

𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
7𝜋 7𝜋
= 2√2 [cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 )]

Alternatively, using the principal argument, 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 =

𝜋
−4

𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
𝜋 𝜋
= 2√2 [cos (− 4 ) + 𝑖 sin (− 4 )]

3
3. 𝑧 = 1−𝑖

Let 𝑧1 = 3 and 𝑧2 = 1 − 𝑖

𝑟1 = √(3)2 + (0)2
= √9
=3
 0
𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 = tan−1 (3), +𝑥-axis
=0

1
𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 = tan−1 (1), QIV
𝜋
= 4 , QIV
𝜋
= −4

𝑟2 = √(1)2 + (−1)2
= √2

𝑧1 𝑟
= 𝑟1 [cos(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )]
𝑧2 2
3 𝜋 𝜋
= [cos (0 − (− 4 )) + 𝑖 sin (0 − (− 4 ))]
√2
3√2 𝜋 𝜋
= [cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 )]
2

Powers of 𝒛. The nth power of 𝑧 for any integer 𝑛 is given by

𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)

DeMoivre’s Formula. When 𝑧 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃, it follows that 𝑟 = 1 and

(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃

DeMoivre’s formula is useful in deriving certain trigonometric identities.

Example 2.2. Compute the indicated power. Express the answer in

rectangular form.

1. (2 + 𝑖3)5

𝑟 = √(2)2 + (3)2
= √13

3
𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = tan−1 (2), QI
= 0.9828
 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)
5
𝑧 5 = (√13) [cos(5(0.9828)) + 𝑖 sin(5(0.9828))]
= 609.3382(cos 4.9140 + 𝑖 sin 4.9140)
= 609.3382(cos 4.9140) + 𝑖609.3382(sin 4.9140)
= 122.0187 − 𝑖596.9962
9
2. (−1 − 𝑖√2)

2
𝑟 = √(−1)2 + (√2)
= √3

√2
𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = tan−1 ( 1 ), QIII
= 0.9553 − 𝜋
= −2.1863

𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)

9
𝑧 9 = (√3) [cos(9(−2.1863)) + 𝑖 sin(9(−2.1863))]
= 140.2961(cos(−19.6767) + 𝑖 sin(−19.19.6767))
= 140.2961(cos(−19.6767)) + 𝑖140.2961(sin(−19.6767))
= 94.9777 − 𝑖103.2581

𝜋 𝜋 6
3. (cos 8 + 𝑖 sin 8 )

𝜋 𝜋
Let 𝑧 = cos + 𝑖 sin .
8 8
𝜋
Then 𝑟 = 1 and 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 8 .

𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)

𝜋 𝜋
𝑧 6 = (1)6 [cos (6 ( 8 )) + 𝑖 sin (6 ( 8 ))]
3𝜋 3𝜋
= cos 4 + 𝑖 sin 4
= −0.7071 + 𝑖0.7071
Roots of 𝒛. The 𝑛 nth roots of a nonzero complex number
𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) are given by

1 𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋 𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋
𝑤𝑘 = 𝑟 𝑛 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
𝑛 𝑛

Where 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, … , 𝑛 − 1.

The root 𝑤 of a complex number 𝑧 obtained by using the principal argument of

𝑧 with 𝑘 = 0 is called the principal nth root of 𝒛.

Example 2.3 Compute all the roots.

1
1. (4)3

𝑟 = √(4)2 + (0)2
=4

0
𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = tan−1 (4), +𝑥axis
=0
1
𝜃+2𝑘𝜋 𝜃+2𝑘𝜋
𝑤𝑘 = 𝑟 𝑛 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )], 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2
𝑛 𝑛

1
0+2𝜋(0) 0+2𝜋(0)
𝑤0 = (4)3 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
3 3
1
= (4) [cos 0 + 𝑖 sin 0]
3

= 1.5874 cos 0 + 𝑖 1.5874 sin 0

= 1.5874
1
0+2𝜋(1) 0+2𝜋(1)
𝑤1 = (4)3 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
3 3
1
2𝜋 2𝜋
= (4) [cos
3 + 𝑖 sin ]
3 3
2𝜋 2𝜋
= 1.5874 cos 3 + 𝑖 1.5874 sin 3
= −0.7937 + 𝑖1.3747
 1
0+2𝜋(2) 0+2𝜋(2)
𝑤2 = (4)3 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
3 3
1
4𝜋 4𝜋
= (4) [cos
3 + 𝑖 sin ]
3 3
4𝜋 4𝜋
= 1.5874 cos 3 + 𝑖 1.5874 sin 3
= −0.7937 − 𝑖1.3747

1
2. (−2𝑖)2

𝑟 = √(0)2 + (−2)2
=2

2
𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = tan−1 (0), −𝑦-axis
𝜋
= −2

1
𝜃+2𝑘𝜋 𝜃+2𝑘𝜋
𝑤𝑘 = 𝑟 𝑛 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )], 𝑘 = 0, 1
𝑛 𝑛

1 𝜋 𝜋
− +2𝜋(0) − +2𝜋(0)
2 2
𝑤0 = (2) [cos (
2 ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
2 2
1
𝜋 𝜋
= (2) [cos (− 4 ) + 𝑖 sin (− 4 )]
2

𝜋 𝜋
= 1.4142 cos (− 4 ) + 𝑖 1.4142 sin (− 4 )
=1−𝑖

1 𝜋 𝜋
− +2𝜋(1) − +2𝜋(1)
2 2
𝑤1 = (2) [cos (
2
2
) + 𝑖 sin ( 2
)]
1
3𝜋 3𝜋
= (2) [cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 )]
2

3𝜋 3𝜋
= 1.4142 cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 1.4142 sin ( 4 )
= −1 + 𝑖

1
3. (−1 + 𝑖)4

1
𝑟 = √(−1)2 + (1)2 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = tan−1 ( ), QII
1
= √2 =𝜋−4=
𝜋 3𝜋
4
 1
𝜃+2𝑘𝜋 𝜃+2𝑘𝜋
𝑤𝑘 = 𝑟 𝑛 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )],𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3
𝑛 𝑛

1 3𝜋 3𝜋
+2𝜋(0) +2𝜋(0)
4 4 4
𝑤0 = (√2) [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
4 4
1
4 3𝜋 3𝜋
= (√2) [cos ( 16 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 16 )]
3𝜋 3𝜋
= 1.0905 cos ( 16 ) + 𝑖 1.0905 sin ( 16 )
= 0.9067 + 𝑖0.6058
1 3𝜋 3𝜋
+2𝜋(1) +2𝜋(1)
4 4 4
𝑤1 = (√2) [cos ( 4
) + 𝑖 sin ( 4
)]
1
4 11𝜋 11𝜋
= (√2) [cos ( 16 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 16 )]
11𝜋 11𝜋
= 1.0905 cos ( 16 ) + 𝑖 1.0905 sin ( 16 )
= −0.6058 + 𝑖0.9067
1 3𝜋 3𝜋
+2𝜋(2) +2𝜋(2)
4 4 4
𝑤2 = (√2) [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
4 4
1
4 19𝜋 19𝜋
= (√2) [cos ( 16 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 16 )]
19𝜋 19𝜋
= 1.0905 cos ( 16 ) + 𝑖 1.0905 sin ( 16 )
= −0.9067 − 𝑖0.6058
1 3𝜋 3𝜋
+2𝜋(3) +2𝜋(3)
4 4 4
𝑤3 = (√2) [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
4 4
1
4 27𝜋 27𝜋
= (√2) [cos ( 16 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 16 )]
27𝜋 27𝜋
= 1.0905 cos ( 16 ) + 𝑖 1.0905 sin ( 16 )
= 0.6058 − 𝑖0.9067

Example 2.4. Find all solutions of the given equation.

1. 𝑧 4 + 1 = 0

𝑧 4 = −1
 1 1
(𝑧 4 )4 = (−1)4
1
𝑧 = (−1)4

𝑟 = √(−1)2 + (0)2
=1

0
𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = tan−1 (1), −𝑥-axis
=𝜋
1
𝜃+2𝑘𝜋 𝜃+2𝑘𝜋
𝑤𝑘 = 𝑟 𝑛 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )], 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3
𝑛 𝑛

1
𝜋+2𝜋(0) 𝜋+2𝜋(0)
𝑤0 = (1)4 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
4 4
1
𝜋 𝜋
= (1) [cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 )]
4

𝜋 𝜋
= cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 )
= 0.7071 + 𝑖0.7071
1
𝜋+2𝜋(1) 𝜋+2𝜋(1)
𝑤1 = (1)4 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
4 4
1
3𝜋 3𝜋
= (1) [cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 )]
4

3𝜋 3𝜋
= cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 )
= −0.7071 + 𝑖0.7071
1
𝜋+2𝜋(2) 𝜋+2𝜋(2)
𝑤2 = (1)4 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
4 4
1
5𝜋 5𝜋
= (1) [cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 )]
4

5𝜋 5𝜋
= cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 )
= −0.7071 − 𝑖0.7071
1
𝜋+2𝜋(3) 𝜋+2𝜋(3)
𝑤3 = (1)4 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
4 4
1
7𝜋 7𝜋
= (1) [cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 )]
4

7𝜋 7𝜋
= cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 )
= 0.7071 − 𝑖0.7071
 PROBLEM SET 2
POWERS AND ROOTS
Express the following complex number in its polar form.
𝜋
1. 1 − 𝑖 2

2+5𝑖
2. −4−7𝑖
 3. 𝑖 7 (√3 − 𝑖10)(2 − 𝑖5)

For Problems 4 – 6, compute the indicated power.

4
4. (−√6 + 𝑖√2)
 𝜋 𝜋 7
5. [√2 (cos 7 + 𝑖 sin 7 )]

𝑖 5
6. (− 3−2𝑖)
For Problems 7 and 8, find and graph all the roots in the complex plane.
1
7. (3 + 𝑖4)5

2
8. (−1 + 𝑖)3
For Problems 9 and 10, find all the solutions of the given equation.

9. 𝑧 4 − 3𝑖𝑧 2 − 2 = 0

10. 𝑧 8 − 2𝑧 4 + 1 = 0
LESSON 3
FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE
Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Define a complex function, and

2. Evaluate exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric, hyperbolic, and inverse

trigonometric functions of a complex variable.

Recall from Calculus. A real function 𝑓 defined on a set 𝑆 of real numbers is

a rule that assigns to every 𝑥 in 𝑆 a real number 𝑓(𝑥), called the value of 𝑓
at 𝑥.

In complex analysis, 𝑆 is a set of complex numbers. And a function 𝑓 defined

on 𝑆 is a rule that assigns to every 𝑧 in 𝑆 a complex number 𝑤, called the
value of 𝑓 at 𝑧. This can be written as
𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)

Hence, a complex function 𝑓(𝑧) is equivalent to a pair of real functions 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦)

and 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦), each depending on the two real variables 𝑥 and 𝑦.

Example Find the 𝑅𝑒 𝑓, and 𝐼𝑚 𝑓 and their values at the given point 𝑧.
3.1.

1. 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 − 5𝑧 at 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑖2

𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 − 5𝑧
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 − 5(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
= (𝑥 2 + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑖 2 𝑦 2 ) − (5𝑥 + 𝑖5𝑦)
= [𝑥 2 + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦 + (−1)𝑦 2 ] − (5𝑥 + 𝑖5𝑦)
= [𝑥 2 + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 ] − 5𝑥 − 𝑖5𝑦
= (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 5𝑥) + 𝑖(2𝑥𝑦 − 5𝑦)

𝑢 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 5𝑥
𝑅𝑒 𝑓(1 − 𝑖2) = (1)2 − (−2)2 − 5(1)
= −8
 𝑣 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑓(𝑧) = 2𝑥𝑦 − 5𝑦
𝐼𝑚 𝑓(1 − 𝑖2) = 2(1)(−2) − 5(−2)
=6

1
2. 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧+1 at 𝑧 = 𝑖2

1
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧+1
1
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = (𝑥+𝑖𝑦)+1
1
= (𝑥+1)+𝑖𝑦
1 (𝑥+1)−𝑖𝑦
= (𝑥+1)+𝑖𝑦 ∙ (𝑥+1)−𝑖𝑦
(𝑥+1)−𝑖𝑦
= [(𝑥+1)+𝑖𝑦][(𝑥+1)−𝑖𝑦]
(𝑥+1)−𝑖𝑦
= (𝑥+1)2 −𝑖 2𝑦2
(𝑥+1)−𝑖𝑦
= (𝑥+1)2 −(−1)𝑦2
(𝑥+1)−𝑖𝑦
= (𝑥+1)2 +𝑦2
(𝑥+1) 𝑦
= (𝑥+1)2 +𝑦2 − 𝑖 (𝑥+1)2 +𝑦2

(𝑥+1)
𝑢 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑥+1)2 +𝑦2
(0+1)
𝑅𝑒 𝑓(𝑖2) = (0+1)2 +(2)2
1
=5

𝑦
𝑣 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑥+1)2 +𝑦2
2
𝐼𝑚 𝑓(𝑖2) = (0+1)2 +(2)2
2
=5

Exponential Function. The definition of 𝑒 𝑧 in terms of the real functions 𝑒 𝑥 ,

cos 𝑦, and sin 𝑦 is

𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦)

 • Note that the so-called Euler formula is given by 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 = cos 𝑦 +
𝑖 sin 𝑦.
• The exponential form of a complex number, 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
can now be written as
𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃

Example Express 𝑒 𝑧 in the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏.

3.2.
𝜋
1. 𝑧 = 𝑖
6

𝜋
𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒𝑖6
𝜋 𝜋
= cos 6 + 𝑖 sin 6
= 0.8660 + 𝑖0.5000

𝜋
2. 𝑧 = 2 − 𝑖 4

𝜋
𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 2−𝑖 4
𝜋
= 𝑒 2 𝑒 −𝑖 4
𝜋 𝜋
= 𝑒 2 [cos (− 4 ) + 𝑖 sin (− 4 )]
𝜋 𝜋
= 𝑒 2 cos (− 4 ) + 𝑖 𝑒 2 sin (− 4 )
= 5.2249 − 𝑖5.2249

3. 𝑧 = −0.25 − 𝑖

𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 −0.25−𝑖
= 𝑒 −0.25 𝑒 −𝑖
= 𝑒 −0.25 [cos(−1) + 𝑖 sin(−1)]
= 𝑒 −0.25 cos(−1) + 𝑖 𝑒 −0.25 sin(−1)
= 0.4208 − 𝑖0.6553
Logarithmic Function. For 𝑧 ≠ 0, and 𝜃 = arg 𝑧,

ln 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖(𝜃 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …

• The principal value of ln 𝑧 is the complex logarithm corresponding to

𝑛 = 0 and 𝜃 = 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧. This can be written as

𝐿𝑛 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧

Example Express ln 𝑧 in the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏. Also evaluate the principal

3.3. value of ln 𝑧.

1. 𝑧 = −5

𝑟 = √(0)2 + (−5)2
=5

5
𝜃 = tan−1 (0), −𝑥-axis
=𝜋

ln 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖(𝜃 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …

ln(−5) = ln(5) + 𝑖(𝜋 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
= 1.6094 + 𝑖(𝜋 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …

For the principal value:

5
𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = tan−1 (0), −𝑥-axis
=𝜋

𝐿𝑛 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧
= ln(5) + 𝑖𝜋
= 1.6094 + 𝑖3.1416
2. 𝑧 = −12 + 𝑖5

5
𝑟 = √(−12)2 + (5)2 𝜃 = tan−1 (12), QII
= 13 = 0.3948, QII
= 2.7468

ln 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖(𝜃 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …

ln(−12 + 𝑖5) = ln(13) + 𝑖(2.7468 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
= 2.5649 + 𝑖(2.7468 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …

For the principal value:

5
𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = tan−1 (12), QII
= 0.3948, QII
= 2.7468

𝐿𝑛 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧
= ln(13) + 𝑖2.7468
= 2.5649 + 𝑖2.7468

3. 𝑧 = √3 − 𝑖7

7
2 𝜃 = tan−1 ( ), QIV
𝑟 = √(√3) + (−7)2 √3
= 1.3282, QIV
= 7.2111
= 4.9550

ln 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖(𝜃 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …

ln(√3 − 𝑖7) = ln(7.2111) + 𝑖(4.9550 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
= 1.9756 + 𝑖(4.9550 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …

For the principal value:

7
𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = tan−1 ( ), QIV
√3
= 1.3282, QIV
= −1.3282

𝐿𝑛 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧
= ln(7.2111) − 𝑖1.3282
= 1.9756 − 𝑖1.3282
Example Find all values of the given quantity.
3.4.
1. 𝑒 𝑧−1 = −𝑖𝑒 2
𝜋
𝑟 = 𝑒 2 ; 𝐴𝑟𝑔 (𝑧) = − 2

𝐿𝑛 ((𝑒 𝑧−1 )) = 𝐿𝑛 (−𝑖𝑒 2 )

𝑧 − 1 = 𝐿𝑛(−𝑖𝑒 2 )
𝜋
𝑧 − 1 = ln 𝑒 2 + 𝑖 (− 2 )
𝜋
𝑧 − 1 = 2 + 𝑖 (− 2 )
𝜋
𝑧 = 3 + 𝑖 (− 2 )

2. (−𝑖)𝑖

Convert first −𝑖 to exponential form.

𝜋
𝑟 = 1 , 𝐴𝑟𝑔 (𝑧) = − 2

𝜋 𝜋
) )
−𝑖 = 1𝑒 𝑖(− 2 = 𝑒 𝑖(− 2

𝜋 𝑖
(−𝑖)𝑖 = (𝑒 𝑖(− 2 ) )
2 (−𝜋)
= 𝑒𝑖 2
𝜋
(−1)(− )
=𝑒 2
𝜋
= 𝑒2

3. log(−5 − 𝑖2)

𝑧 = −5 − 𝑖2
𝑟 = √29 , 𝐴𝑟𝑔 (𝑧) = −2.7611

𝑧 = √29𝑒 −𝑖2.7611

log 𝑧 = log(√29𝑒 −𝑖2.7611 )

= log(√29) + log(𝑒 −𝑖2.7611 )
 = log(√29) + (−𝑖2.7611) log 𝑒
= log(√29) − 𝑖(2.7611 log 𝑒)
= 0.7312 − 𝑖1.1991

4. log 2+𝑖 (3 − 𝑖5)

Let 𝑥 = log 2+𝑖 (3 − 𝑖5)

(2 + 𝑖)𝑥 = 3 − 𝑖5
𝐿𝑛 ((2 + 𝑖)𝑥 ) = 𝐿𝑛 (3 − 𝑖5)
𝑥 𝐿𝑛 (2 + 𝑖) = 𝐿𝑛 (3 − 𝑖5)
𝐿𝑛 (3−𝑖5)
𝑥 = 𝐿𝑛 (2+𝑖)

For 𝑧1 = 3 − 𝑖5 , 𝑟1 = √34 , 𝐴𝑟𝑔 (𝑧1 ) = −1.0304

For 𝑧2 = 2 + 𝑖 , 𝑟2 = √5 , 𝐴𝑟𝑔 (𝑧2 ) = 0.4636

𝐿𝑛 (3−𝑖5)
𝑥= 𝐿𝑛 (2+𝑖)
ln √34−𝑖1.0304
= ln(√5)+𝑖0.4636
1.7632−𝑖1.0304
= 0.8047+𝑖0.4636
= 1.0912 − 𝑖1.9092

5. (3 + 𝑖4)(1+𝑖2)

Convert 3 + 𝑖4 in exponential form.

𝑧 = 3 + 𝑖4 , 𝑟 = 5 , 𝐴𝑟𝑔 (𝑧) = 0.9273

𝑧 = 3 + 𝑖4 = 5𝑒 𝑖0.9273

(1+𝑖2)
(3 + 𝑖4)(1+𝑖2) = (5𝑒 𝑖0.9273 )
(1+𝑖2)
= (𝑒 ln 5+𝑖0.9273 )
= 𝑒 (ln 5+𝑖0.9273)(1+𝑖2)
= 𝑒 −0.2452+𝑖4.1462
= 𝑒 −0.2452 𝑒 𝑖4.1462
= 0.7825(cos 4.1462 + 𝑖 sin 4.1462)
= −0.4197 − 𝑖0.6604
Trigonometric Function. If 𝑥 is a real variable, then Euler’s formula gives

𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥 and

𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥

By adding (or subtracting) the above equations, we can obtain an equation for
cos 𝑥 (or sin 𝑥) in terms of exponential functions.

𝑒 𝑖𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
cos 𝑥 = (1)
2

𝑒 𝑖𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
sin 𝑥 = 𝑖2
(2)

Let 𝑥 = 𝑖𝑦 and from (1),

𝑒 𝑖(𝑖𝑦) + 𝑒 −𝑖(𝑖𝑦)
cos 𝑖𝑦 =
2 2
𝑖 2𝑦
𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖 𝑦
=
2
𝑒 −𝑦 + 𝑒 𝑦
=
2
= cosh 𝑦

Also, let 𝑥 = 𝑖𝑦 and from (2),

𝑒 𝑖(𝑖𝑦) − 𝑒 −𝑖(𝑖𝑦)
sin 𝑖𝑦 =
𝑖2
2 2
𝑒 𝑖 𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑖 𝑦
=
𝑖2
𝑒 −𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑦
=
2𝑖
𝑒 −𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑦 𝑖
= ∙
𝑖2 𝑖
𝑖(𝑒 −𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑦 )
=
2𝑖 2
𝑖(𝑒 − 𝑒 𝑦 )
−𝑦
=
−2
𝑖(−𝑒 −𝑦 + 𝑒 𝑦 )
=
2
= 𝑖 sinh 𝑦
Recall: The definitions of hyperbolic cosine and hyperbolic sine in terms of the
real exponential functions 𝑒 𝑦 and 𝑒 −𝑦 are as follows:

𝑒 𝑦 + 𝑒 −𝑦
cosh 𝑦 =
2

𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑦
sinh 𝑦 =
2

Evaluating cos(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) and sin(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) respectively gives

cos(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = cos 𝑥 cos 𝑖𝑦 − sin 𝑥 sin 𝑖𝑦

= cos 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − sin 𝑥 (𝑖 sinh 𝑦)
= cos 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥 sinh 𝑦

sin(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑖𝑦 + cos 𝑥 sin 𝑖𝑦

= sin 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 + cos 𝑥 (𝑖 sinh 𝑦)
= sin 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 + 𝑖 cos 𝑥 sinh 𝑦

Note: The trigonometric identities are also the same in the complex case.

Hyperbolic Functions. For any complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

𝑒 𝑧 +𝑒 −𝑧
cosh 𝑧 = 2
and

𝑒 𝑧 −𝑒 −𝑧
sinh 𝑧 = 2

Evaluating cosh 𝑧 and sinh 𝑧 respectively gives

cosh(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = cosh 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sinh 𝑥 sin 𝑦

sinh(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = sinh 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 cosh 𝑥 sin 𝑦

Example Evaluate the following.
3.6.
1. sin(3 + 𝑖4)

= sin 3 cosh 4 + 𝑖 cos 3 sinh 4

= 3.8537 + 𝑖(−27.0168)
= 3.8537 − 𝑖27.0168

2. tan(3 − 𝑖7)
sin(3 − 𝑖7)
=
cos(3 − 𝑖7)
sin 3 cosh(−7) + 𝑖 cos 3 sinh(−7)
=
cos 3 cosh(−7) − 𝑖 sin 3 sinh(−7)
77.3785 + 𝑖(542.8288)
=
−542.8296 − 𝑖(−77.3784)
77.3785 + 𝑖542.8288
=
−542.8296 + 𝑖77.3784
= −3.8645𝑥10−7 − 𝑖
= −𝑖

3. sinh(2 + 3𝑖)

= sinh 2 cos 3 + 𝑖 cosh 2 sin 3

= −3.5906 + 𝑖0.5309

4. sech(1 − 𝑖2)

1
=
cosh(1 − 𝑖2)
1
=
cosh 1 cos(−2) + 𝑖 sinh 1 sin(−2)
1
=
−0.6421 + 𝑖(−1.0686)
1
=
−0.6421 − 𝑖1.0686
= −0.4131 + 𝑖0.6876
5. sin−1 (1 + 𝑖2)

Let 𝑥 = sin−1 (1 + 𝑖2)

sin 𝑥 = sin(sin−1 (1 + 𝑖2))

𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
= 1 + 𝑖2
𝑖2
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 = (1 + 𝑖2 )(𝑖2)
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 = −4 + 𝑖2 (multiply both sides by 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 )
2
(𝑒 𝑖𝑥 ) − 1 = (−4 + 𝑖2)𝑒 𝑖𝑥
2
(𝑒 𝑖𝑥 ) − (−4 + 𝑖2)𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 1 = 0 (use quadratic formula)

−[−(−4 + 𝑖2)] ± √[−(−4 + 𝑖2)]2 − 4(1)(−1)

𝑒 𝑖𝑥 =
2(1)
(−4+𝑖2)±√(12−𝑖16)+4
= 2
(−4+𝑖2)±√16−𝑖16
= 2
(−4+𝑖2)±4√1−𝑖
= 2

Evaluate √1 − 𝑖.
𝜋
𝑧 = 1 − 𝑖 , 𝑟 = √2 , 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = − 4
1 𝜋
− +2𝜋(0)
2 4
𝑤0 = (√2) ∠ = 1.0987 − 𝑖0.4551
2
1 𝜋
− +2𝜋(1)
2 4
𝑤1 = (√2) ∠ = −1.0987 + 𝑖0.4551
2

(−4+𝑖2)±4√1−𝑖
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = (use the principal square root, 𝑤0 )
2

(−4 + 𝑖2) + 4(1.0987 − 𝑖0.4551)

𝑒 𝑖𝑥 =
2
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = 0.1974 + 𝑖0.0898
ln(𝑒 𝑖𝑥 ) = ln(0.1974 + 𝑖0.0898𝑖)
𝑖𝑥 = ln(0.2169) + 𝑖0.4269
ln(0.2169) + 𝑖0.4269
𝑥=
𝑖
𝑥 = 0.4276 + 𝑖1.5283
 (−4 + 2𝑖) − 4(1.0987 − 𝑖0.4551)
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 =
2
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = −4.1974 + 𝑖1.9102
ln(𝑒 𝑖𝑥 ) = ln(−4.1974 + 𝑖1.9102)
𝑖𝑥 = ln(4.6116) + 𝑖2.7145
ln(4.6116) + 𝑖2.7145
𝑥=
𝑖
𝑥 = 2.7145 − 𝑖1.5286

6. coth−1 (1 + 𝑖)
Let 𝑥 = coth−1 (1 + 𝑖)

coth 𝑥 = coth(coth−1 (1 + 𝑖))

cosh 𝑥
=1+𝑖
sinh 𝑥
𝑒𝑥 +𝑒−𝑥
2
𝑒𝑥 −𝑒−𝑥 =1+𝑖
2
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
=1+𝑖
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
𝑒 + 𝑒 = (1 + 𝑖)(𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 ) (multiply both sides by 𝑒 𝑥 )
𝑥 −𝑥

𝑒 2𝑥 + 1 = (1 + 𝑖)(𝑒 2𝑥 − 1)
𝑒 2𝑥 + 1 = 𝑒 2𝑥 − 1 + 𝑖𝑒 2𝑥 − 𝑖
𝑖𝑒 2𝑥 = 2 + 𝑖
2+𝑖
𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝑖
𝑒 2𝑥 = 1 − 𝑖2
ln(𝑒 2𝑥 ) = ln(−1 + 𝑖2)
2𝑥 = ln(√5) − 𝑖1.1071
ln(√5)−𝑖1.1071
𝑥= 2
𝑥 = 0.4024 − 𝑖0.5536
 PROBLEM SET 3
FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE
Express each of the following in the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏.

1. sin(2 − 𝑖)

2. cosh(1 − 𝑖2)
3. 𝑒 𝑧 = −2

4. 2𝑖
5. 𝐿𝑛 (−3 + 𝑖4)

6. (1 − 𝑖)2−𝑖3
7. tanh−1 𝑖

8. cos −1 5
For Problems 9 and 10, prove or disprove the following.

9. 𝑒̅̅̅𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧̅

10. ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐿𝑛 𝑧 = ln 𝑧̅