basic electrical Lec22

Introduction to Electrical Engineering
Prof. Bhim Singh

Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi
Lecture – 22
Bipolar Junction Transistors- II
Welcome to the course on Introduction to Electrical Engineering. We will have a Lecture 22

today on the Bipolar Junction Transistor Part 2.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:30)
Well, we would like to discuss today bipolar junction transistor starting with application. We
will talk about static characteristics of common base transistor circuit. We will talk static
characteristics common emitter circuit which is very usually used and then we will have a
relation between the two current gain α and β which we had discussed already last time.
And then we will talk about load lines for AC as well as DC for the transistor and then we
will like to discuss the transistor as an amplifier and numerical.
And another part we will like to discuss hybrid parameters which discuss already h
parameters in the two port network. So, the same is applicable for the transistor so we would
like to discuss that then we talk about AC equivalent circuit of transistor and limitations to h
parameters of bipolar junction transistor and we like to have a stabilizing the voltage supply
for BJT or and transistor use and then we will discuss a transistor as a switch.
these are applications in lot of application we have then following by the numerical problem.
So, starting with again the transistor application which we discussed many time in the last
lecture also that give the motivation why really we are studying this transistor.
So, starting that we say transistor is used in many places especially like computer processing
unit computing processing units like we call it in short CPU then memory, input, output units
then display, mouse, keyboard, speaker WiFi. These are some of the applications where in
computers we are using this BJT and the size of this BJT going to be day by day smaller and
smaller so that in the same volume you can accommodate large number of the transistor.
And then display unit like TFT, LCD as you can just see here the controlling each pixel and
colour dot for flat panel display and adjusting the display back light brightness. So, this all
used of different kind of the transistor.
Then the storage devices like every bit of your non magnetic memory storage flash or D-
RAM or E-PROM or volatile static ram they used all BJT and every bit of your computing
processing unit in CPU registered data and address for every bit of the Math or logic for
encryption and decryption we use all these BJT as a basic unit.
Then we have storage devices like kind of pen drive or the hard disk like microchip
containing the transistors which stabilize like 1s or 0s computer data and up to 1 TB capacity.
1 million thick books you can accommodate on this in this hard disk and no moving part
meaning less energy needed for the more robust.
So, it is only much smaller in size when compared to hard disk size and magnetic tape and
CD and DVD. Here we have memory certainly also by your BJT.
All mobile phones the transistor part of modulating, transmitting, receiving and de-
modulating circuits and WiFi, Bluetooth or Cellular all they use the basic unit transistor or
BJT as a basic unit in all these applications. There is one of major important why application
we are mentioning. This application only can probably hardly not more than couple of
decades hardly a decade old, but it has gone to popular throughout the world like it has
changed the life style of the human being’s life.
Then another is like WiFi module you can see and how the circuit of Bluetooth circuit and
you can see transistor in the circuit along with the other component. So, in this we use the
transistor for many purpose not only for one specific purpose.
So, now coming to a static DC circuit of a common base circuit static circuit mean why we
call it static and we say DC circuit because that is a constant signal maybe of different
magnitude, but it is a constant signal compared to like we call here the dynamic like the AC
equivalent signals.
So, here it is a typical circuit for getting the characteristics of this common base transistor
circuit you can just see here the base is a common. So, we are applying the signal
corresponding to like in this NPN transistor we are applying the signal as a between the base
emitter as well as in we are applying with respect to between your base and collector.
So, that is why because base is common that is why we call it common base circuit all our
transistor circuit that is why we are not talking here of what will be the transistor. So, we vary
the input current I using the potentiometer R1 here and for each value of IE we vary the output
voltage VCB using the potentiometer R2 here and note the corresponding output collector
current.
So, for a given emitter current we look into the characteristics between your collectors to base
voltage versus the collector current that characteristics we call it. So, you will have a several
characteristics because for each emitter current you will have separate characteristics.
As you can see here we have a several base current why minus sign is there because
according to the arrow this just flows into opposite direction. So, here it is a potential
difference between collector and base. So, as VCB voltage we are applying here and this is the
collector current which is coming here and for different emitter current certainly the
characteristics differ and all these characteristics can be divided into three parts.
We already discussed that one is a cut off here on the closer to x axis where emitter current is
almost like a zero and then you have the static characteristics where the drop across this is
your VCB is very small and collector current goes high, collector current in this region mainly
we call it the amplification or active region.
The static characteristics for common base transistor shown here and IE direction is taken just
flowing into the emitter terminal of BJT that is why it is written as the minus emitter current.
So, now from these characteristics there are some observation. So, from this figure it is seen
that the positive value of the collector base voltage, the collector current remains almost
constant and for a given collector base voltage the collector current is practically proportional
to the emitter current. You will see collector current is going more and more and emitter
current is also going more and more for a given this VCB or collector to base voltage. So,
these are like a couple of observation from this characteristic.
And we can call it here we can say what is here the current amplification factor for the
IC
common base circuit and that is we call it constant VCB. We can define the   where
I E
IC
the slope of that is the slope what is your change of your collector current in a particular
I E
emitter current if we do not consider the sign so we can say as IC is lower than IE the value
corresponding to this gain is your 0.92 to 0.99 which we already discussed earlier.
So, in this configuration that is the reason we call it this notation alpha so alpha gain is
always less than 1.
So, now coming to the; static characteristics for another configuration which call common
emitter characteristics.
This common emitter characteristic is very popular specially as a power amplifier. We

discuss last time also from the table the maximum power gain is only for this configuration.
So, here also for a given base current which we are getting from here we will be having a
different applying different common collector to emitter voltage we will note down what is
the value of IC.
So, for each base current we will have a characteristic between the VCE versus IC. So, here to
get this characteristic we have to vary the base current using the potentiometer and for each
value of IB vary the output voltage VCE using the potentiometer and note the corresponding
output collector current IC.
Here procedure to get it there, maintain the base current constant a particular value, but you
have to repeat many base current value and note down the collector current that is IC for
various values of collector emitter voltage which you are varying it that is why an
independent variable and IC is the dependent variable because that IC will be decided by the
characteristics of the transistor. So, test repeated for several values of base current IB and the
results are shown here.
from here this is the kind of the base current versus collector current and for here for a given
I C
 and the slope of this and this value of beta in generally 20 to 200 or so. So, this gain
I B
is much higher in this current gain in this configuration is much higher than the previous one.
So, now coming to the two p-n junction of the BJT can be independently biased to result in
four possible transistor operating modes as summarized in the table. So, we can call it here
we have emitter base bias, collector base bias and the kind of operating mode. in this case we
can say if emitter base junction is forward bias and collector base is also forward bias both
are forward which we discussed last time.
So, the transistor operating saturation reason is the drop of the VCB only very small it goes to
in saturation and current is decided by the external circuit in the transistor, but if both are
reverse bias emitter base and collector base junction both are reverse bias then we call it cut
off. It means that work as a switch is off here switch is on and if it is emitter base is reverse
bias and collector base is forward bias.
Then it goes like as an inverse mode and when it is emitter base is forward bias and then your
collector base is reverse bias then it became a linear or we call it the active region for which
we have calculate the current gain or so. So, these are the modes of your operation of this
BJT of this two p-n junction diode which we discuss it.
And this is the characteristics which we are talking about that we have a collector current
versus the VC for this common emitter configuration and here again we were mentioning that
this is the saturation the shaded portion where I just mention it the VC saturation is very small
maybe depends maybe 0.3 volts over the silicon transistor 0.3 volt, but current is going to be
quite high.
Even so depends on how much your emitter current a base current you are just putting here,
the different value of base current and when base current is 0 you will find this will be call it
the cut off region here only leakage current flows into that and this region we call it the active
region and you can understand this active region means in the sense that you are getting like
the collector current in proportional to your base current.
That is the reason we call it as an active region and this is certainly in this case the current
gain is quite high and that is the reason we call it like in this case your power gain also very
high. So, maximum collector current flows and the transistor acts as a close switch from the
collector to emitter terminal.
And first region is the cut off region and operation near the axis voltage this is a cut off
region here where the base current is 0 and you will have an almost negligible collector
current even if you have a different voltage applied to V CE. Since it works as an open circuit
so we call it like this as a cut off region. So, operation near the voltage axis of the
characteristics as it is the shaded portion here.
And the transistor act much like an open switch and only leakage current flows through this
operation as that is shown here.
So, the second region is active region this is the major reason it is written here or we call it
linear mode and the operation in the region in this to the right of the saturation and above the
cut off. Saturation means from this side and cut off means this side so this is the region here
and in this region the linear relationship exists between the terminal current.
And now inverse mode a transistor in reverse active mode conducts even amplifies, but the
current flows into opposite direction. So, inefficient active mode with emitter and collector
base interchange and the down side to reverse active mode is the βR is much smaller than
your active mode.
And this is something like modes of operation which you are talking here is a forward, active
mode where the collector voltage is the highest and the base and emitter is lowest. So, this is
a forward active mode and we have a saturation mode where the base voltages larger than
your collector voltages as well as from emitter voltage that is why we call it like VCE is much
smaller than even VB.
So, this is saturation where it works as a switch and in this mode cut off means where your
emitter voltage is higher than base as well as your collector voltage is also higher than the
base. It means both junctions are reverse bias. So, this is cut off region so switch is off here
switch is on and this is the forward active and this is the reverse active where like your base
voltage is in between again emitter and collector voltage.
So, these are the four modes of operation for working this transistor as a switch we operate in
saturation and cut off. Cut off means circuit is open saturation means circuit is closed and the
current is decided in the circuit by external means because saturations ideally you must have
a voltage 0 across the switch otherwise the loss is in the switch will be very high.
So, in saturations since voltage drop is very small like 0.3-volt order of that and it means it
will not have a much losses, but in active region certainly you will have a reasonable voltage
across switches. So, devise work as in an active region so this we use normally for
amplification these are used as a switch in many power electronic applications where we use
this as a transistor as a switch.
So, this is something for both the transistor NPN that was the table for NPN and PNP in
generality there. So, that was for NPN only. So, voltage relation means VB in between VE and
VC then we say active, but it is reverse for PNP because just it goes reverse and if VB is let us
say greater than VE and greater than VC then reverse in saturation like a both junctions are in
forward bias.
And for PNP it will be cut off and VB therefore it is less than less than from VB as well as VC
then it goes to cut off let us say switch is off for PNP it is your saturation and VB if it is in
between the PNP is a reverse active and here it will be PNP for active zone. So, these are the
modes of operation for both the transistor configuration like NPN as well as PNP.
we cannot generalize this because they are corresponding to the voltage applied for NPN and
PNP is different.
Now, coming to the relation between these two current gain α and β we already discuss that
these current gains are for also sometime different configuration.
So, talking about this again common emitter configuration which we told that it is very
commonly used here and in this case you can probably get the characteristics as we discuss
static characteristics that you can apply for different base current. You can just apply the
different collector voltage these are the two independent variables and the collector current is
decided by how much is the base current as well as how much you are going to apply VC
your VCE from this.
So, now from this circuit we can call it your emitter current is a sum of your collector plus
IC
base current or I E  IC  I B and we have here   and that is you can say
I E
I C
so it means this gain is certainly less than 1 because here ΔIC are carrying both
I C  I B
and IB even it is smaller so this will cause this α = to be less than 1.
1 I B 1 1
And you can put the value of  1 or  1  this we call it the collector divided
 IC  
by base current that is the kind of application we can call 1 upon beta and from this relation
 
we can get   and we can say   . So, α is slightly less than 1 and that is the
1  1
reason if it is slightly less than 1, this denominator quantity will be very low compared to the
upper one maybe 0.9 to 0.99.
And this is like it will be 0.0121. So, you will find the beta will be quite large. So, a small
variation in your α will correspond to the large variation in the β from this expression this is I
think double kind of amplification corresponding to because of 1 – α.
So, in the absence of input signal when IE is 0 that is we call it like a cut off and we find there
is still a small collector current and this is the leakage current ICBO crossing the reverse based
collector based junction and therefore the total collector current is IC   I E  ICBO .
And therefore we can see IC    I B  IC   ICBO and from which you can say ICBO take on
other side IC 1      I B  ICBO or from here you can find out IC will be equal to
 I I
IC  I B  CBO or from which you can get I C   I B  CBO .
1    1    1   
And if ICBO is very small then the large term of this expression can be neglected. So, we can
I C
say the relation reduces to   and the leakage current is the temperature dependent and
I B
increase hence in temperature causes a leakage current to rise.
Now, coming to the load line for a transistor.

the load line of a transistor we can again get from by doing this NPN transistor with a gain
taking with common base configuration with amplification and the load resistance R here. So,
in this case also we can think about here it is here you are using a AC input voltage along
with the bias here, the DC voltage with the input resistance.
And then you will be looking the output here corresponding in the output alternating voltage
and this certainly this capacitor will block your DC voltage because this is something bias
why are to provide and why capacitor is providing a these are also means you want to kind of
amplification this small AC signal towards the output.
So, this is here what we are talking about the kind of load line. So, in this configuration this
voltage between collector and base we are applying because base is a common based
transistor configuration. So, this is a VCB and here we have a collector current and for
different emitter current this will be that cutoff resistance will have a different amount of the
current will be cutting on the different points.
And joining these points we call it this as a load line. So, load line is the locus of the variation
of collector current for any variation in emitter current and the straight line PD drawn is the
load line and the inverse of this which is equal to the resistance of the load. Inverse of this
means because this will be having a kind of a negative slope. So, we have to take inverse of
this that we call it the load line.
And you can just see we have a load line this is the same circuit which we are showing over
here and you can see the biasing in the sense that all the time current remains positive and
that current why this collector current remains always positive because we are providing a
kind of bias here. So, these are collector current and this is the voltage between your collector
and base.
And you are getting like different characteristics and when you apply the AC signal you will
find in the output also amplified signal corresponding to this the IC current which has an
offset will go because of this capacitor. So, with the AC source S is off, bias point D here is
obtained that is when we do not have a AC that is these two corresponding points here.
As you can see this point is corresponding to this point only on this characteristic. So, we can
say IE emitter current will be equal to I E    B  VBE  / RS that will be deciding if it is a 0
what will emitter current that will be flowing corresponding to that. So, it will be your
 1  0.7  / 100  3mA .
And with the AC source on the input current IE varies between - 1 to – 0.5 that is form – 1 to
0.5 it is varying and it will be varying on over this going to be increase and decrease as it is
going to be in this manner over this. So, if you go this point to this point it will be moving
from here and coming back and on this side if you are going up and coming back in this
manner.
So, that is the way how you will be getting on this characteristic of this load line and you will
getting certainly output voltage which will be of this because you will get a voltage kind of
AC voltage with the DC offset, but DC offset will go out because of capacitor so you will get
AC voltage output. Here which is amplified of this corresponding to that gain of this voltage.
So, you have this small voltage you were getting reflected amplified voltage in the output or
so.
So, we can call the function of capacitor is to eliminate the dc component which I mention
here of the voltage across the resistance from the output voltage and if IC is the RMS value of
the a. c component of the collector current then I C R gives the RMS value of a.c component
of the output voltage and I c 2 R give the average output ac power and note down the lower
case subscript Ic indicate the RMS a. c value corresponding to capital subscript IC for the d c
value.
And the supply voltage and register bias a transistor they establish a specific set of d c
terminal of voltage and current and thus determining the point of active mode operation
called the quiescent point and using the quiescent point is unperturbed by the application of a
small signal to the circuit and hence D is called quiescent point. So, your characteristics will
be moving over this as you can see here how the IC is moving with the kind of the offset in
this case.
Well, now we can call why biasing is there. So, BJT biasing is in common emitter
configuration we just already mentioned that common emitter junction is very common and
you have kind of biasing here. As you can see in this figure only a dc supply VCC is needed to
establish the active mode of operation and usually quiescent point of active mode of
operation are unchanged by the application of ac signal to the circuit here because you
already have corresponding to these resistance as a potential divider.
So, you are having some dc bias already for applying here along with the input signal here
that will be added or subtracted according to the ac signal or so.
So, here you can just see this is your circuit and you can calculate from equivalent of this and
how it really behaves here. So, you will have a R B which is shown here it will be RB will be
two parallel resistances equivalent parallel resistance if you talk about in between to this. So,
R1 R2
it will be RB  and the VB which will be kind of bias voltage which will be coming
R1  R2
here it will be certainly the voltage drop across the R1 out of this.
R1
So, it will be whatever current is flowing here if we consider this that is the current
R1  R2
multiplied R1 that will be the voltage appearing into the VC as kind of potential divider here
and the resistance in series and this voltage becomes almost like a Thevenin equivalent of it
here and then you have like RC as well as RE in this circuit. So, this is with this kind of
biasing here.
I EQ
And now you can say here VBB  RB  VBEQ  I EQ RE this circuit if you take the total
 1
circuit that will be circuit here what is shown here. So, you will have this voltage here and
this is equivalent gain corresponding to the transistor here.
And then you have a voltage drop between your BEQ as well as the resistance there. This
resistance has changed equal to it act like RB /(β+ 1) because of the transistor operation and
you get this kind of circuit finally in this case.
I EQ
And solving this circuit from there you can find out V VBB  RB  VBEQ  I EQ RE and
 1
VBB  VBEQ
from this you can get the ICQ  I EQ  this voltage in this circuit divided by
RB /    1  RE
your RB + 1 upon β this resistance plus this resistance. So, that you will you the current
flowing into considering the α is closer to 1 means neglecting the small current of this.
So, we can say collector emitter current both are almost equal considering the base current
almost negligible. So, if the component values are such that the; RB /    1  RE than the
ICQ is nearly constant regarded as the change in beta which can change due to temperature or
voltage and current fluctuations.
And now like BJT biasing in common emitter kind of configuration mode here again we have
a bias again you will be applying like ac signal here so bias point is here over this only on this

load line only you will be moving. So, bias will be Q  VCEQ , ICQ  and load line will be
VCC  VCE
iC  this is the drop here in the transistor.
Rdc
So, supply voltage minus the drop will be the Rdc  RC  RE . So, current flowing into this
network and that is your collector current and this is your voltage your collector to emitter
VCE voltage and on which base current and this is for different amount of the base current.
So, this line we call the load line, but the slope of this negative so it is inverse of that we call
that the equivalent resistance of those load line.
So, now we have now BJT biasing in common emitter configuration is very much use in case
of power amplification. So, coupling capacitance Cc confined the dc quantity to the transistor
and bias circuit and like a bias bypass capacitor that is your CE. Effectively remove the gain
reducing emitter resistance for ac signal while allowing RE to play its role establishing the β
independent biasing. If provide the kind of biasing for this emitter junction to for
corresponding to this resistances.
So, here if we consider it that kind of capacitor biasing so like here this is corresponding is
again the common emitter kind of configuration so that effect you have seen it is not there.
So, you will have a kind of equivalent circuit here the effective resistance seen by the dc bias
collector current ICQ is a Rdc  RC  RE .
We already talk about in the previous case so some of the book and this will your ac collector
signal current i c sees as a total Rac  RC RL /  RC  RL  and since Rac is not equal to Rdc in
general the concept a. c load line arise in this configuration.

So, now this is small quantity represent the AC quantity. So, vce will be equal to vce  ic Rac
and where the ic  iC  ICQ and vce  VCEQ  VCE and above equation can be written as
VCEQ  vCE
i iC  iCQ  that is we call it AC load line in the characteristic.
Rac
So, we have here the AC load line which represents the red line and the DC load line is this
line and you can understand why the difference is there because in case of AC load line you
will have a AC quantity added with your DC quantity and that is the reason your AC line will
have more the slope corresponding to these characteristics and characteristics is same
collector versus base current.
But the quiescent point is the same common point for either DC your load line as well as for
VCC  VCE
AC load line. DC load line is only for the DC quantity as you can see here I IC 
Rdc
where Rdc is the sum of both the resistance like emitter resistance plus capacitor resistance,
but here iC  iCQ that is for AC load line because it is small means kind of it includes the AC
VCEQ  vCE
variation AC component into it that will be iC  iCQ 
Rac
And Rac  RC / / RL . So, this is the difference between your AC load line and DC load line.
Now coming to transistor as amplifiers which are used in many, many applications for low
power application.
So, here we can say transistor as an amplifier that we have a DC supply. We are giving an
input signal a small a. c signals means most of the signals are normally changing with respect
to time which we have to amplify maybe like a sound in amplifier you might have seen those
are the signals because your signal intensity goes on changing with respect to time. So, we
can say those signals are your normally a. c signals with the kind of d. c offset.
And the output signal which we have to amplify that should be also a. c, but we have to
provide the bias on the both side so that transistor work only in your positive side only. So,
the transistor is required to operate in unidirectional which I mentioned only in active linear
mode otherwise the negative part of the a. c would cause say to the emitter bias junction to
reverse bias and to disturb its operation.
And this prevent the normal transistor action means in active region it will go out of active
region as a result it is necessary to introduce the d. c bias and to bring it entire operation
always in the d. c operating mode so that it work all the time as an amplified mode only.
So, basic action which I have already discussed it. The basic action of an amplifier is the
input signal controls the amount of power that the amplifiers takes from the power source and
convert into the power in the load and by connecting the load effectively between the
collector and the common terminal the transistor can produce a gain.
And the transistor required to operate in a unidirectional this is important which we mention
to bring it in active or linear mode otherwise the negative parts of this a.c would cause say the
emitter base junction to go to reverse bias and it will come out of and this will prevent the
normal transistor action occurring as an amplifier or in active region. As a result, it is
necessary to introduce a d. c bias in this transistor operating as an amplifier because most of
the signal we just amplify the changes with respect to time. So, we consider that a we will
have almost like a. c signal with varying.
And you can just see here how really we work out. So, we have an input a. c we have
capacitors on both the sides coupling capacitor and biasing form your supply voltage to the
base also as well as this resistance between the line to limit the current when the transistor
goes towards kind of amplification. So, this is a common emitter normally amplifier which
are very much used for as a power amplification.
We have seen already from the table for all three configurations common base, common
emitter and common collector. So, this is the configuration which provides the highest power
gain and normally we use this as a transistor amplifier to amplify the input signal to the
output signal.
So, it is called common emitter configuration since emitter is a common reference to both
input and output terminals input is your base and output is your collector and emitter is
usually the terminal closest to the ground potential and amplifier design using connection of
common emitter has high gain for the current and voltage rating that is the reason your power
gain is also high in this configuration.
So, the purpose of component applied here the resistor RB is included to provide the bias
current to the bias of the transistor and the input a. c signal is fed into the transistor via C1
which prevents the signal source having any effect on the steady component of the base
current or d. c component of the bias current.
And the coupling capacitor C2 prevents the load from affecting the steady condition of the
collector current and the capacitance C1, C2 are selected to ensure their reactance is negligible
at the operating frequency means they do not take any much drop at the operating frequency
they behave like a very small. They are supposed to only block the d. c, but a. c this will not
block so their values would be reactance corresponding to that should be almost negligible or
very small as far as a. c signal is concerned.
So, let the IB the steady base current, usually term as a quiescent current and your VBE the
quiescent based emitter voltage and Vs supply voltage will be Vs  I B RB  VBE and from
Vs  VBE
where we can get the RB  and only VBE the significant smaller than Vs and
IB
Vs
approximately RB  because that is the bias resistance from the supply voltage towards
IB
the base junction where the input signal is apply.
So, you are going to add in addition to the input signal you are going to add d.c signal
because of this biasing provided by this RB resistance from the supply voltage and that give
another component of you can call to the IB base or you can call d.c bias current in addition to
a. c signal.
So, let the applied signal to the in general as approximation it can be time varying signal, but
let us consider as a a.c signal iB  I Bm sin t where the total base current will be now IB that
is the bias current which you find out because RB resistance from connected from supply
I B  I Bm sin t and at any instant vce  Vs  iC RC that is the drop because of the a. c current
coming into your collector resistance.
1 V
So, iC   .vce  s . So, here also you will find you are almost providing a kind of d. c
RC RC
bias here.
Then you can just see the same circuit here so you have the bias here the base which gives
you a d. c component. So, this comes in a. c component so transistor behave like all the time
with the bias always in the unidirectional mode as far as the operation is concerned so that it
works like as an amplifier and here also you are getting the kind of voltage d. c amplified, but
this capacitor takes the blocking the d .c voltage.
So, you get a. c voltage, but the reactance of this and this for this signal and this signal, input
signal corresponding to that we can see reactance is almost negligible and this is you can see
this is the collector current corresponding to the net current a. c and d. c current and d.c
corresponding to your drop your VCE corresponding to the voltage drop of VCE and on this Q
the quiescent point where only the d. c signal is flowing.
But over it you will have an a. c going to be down, but it remained always the positive and
similarly upper side also goes and down over the quiescent point. The a. c signal will be
moving on this load line and that we call it like the load line for bipolar transistor amplifier.
And here we can say the load line correspond to IC  VS  VCE  / RC that is the load line of
this collector current and your bias collector emitter voltage in this circuit. So, bias quiescent
point will be because that is corresponding to almost a d.c only on this point. So,
I B  VS  VBE  / RB ~ VS / RB that is the biasing we are providing from bias resistance from
supply voltage and this will be almost like because that voltage drop is very small
corresponding to the base to emitter junction.
So, it will be approximately equal to VS / RB and with the input AC source on the input base
current will be I B  Ibm sin t . This is a very small signal adding to IB. So, we presume that
this this current will be always positive current so that it operates all the time with the DC
signal only with the kind of pulsating current over your IB and the operating point correspond
to this signal will be varying from A to B.
And keeping safe that it does not go to 0 it does not go to cut off region, but does not go to
out of amplification only on upper side and lower side. So, it remains still active region as an
amplification then only so IB accordingly we have to see what is the input signal and
accordingly we have to decide this bias current like IB which we have to decide because of
this RB resistance in this circuit operating satisfactorily as a transistor amplifier.
I o ICA  ICB
So, now coming to this as a current gain is Gi   and this will be voltage gain
Ii 2Ibm
Vo
will be Gv  that is the output voltage which we are talking about and this is the output
Vi
Po
current going to be in the output and then power gain will be GP  where Po is the signal
Pi
power the load in the output and the Pi is the signal of the input to the from the signal to this
amplifier transistor circuit.
So, we can call it now it follows Gp power gain will be equal to voltage gain and multiply
current gain GP  Gv Gi and we can say the characteristics lying ic to iB known as a dynamic
characteristics and can be derived because why it is dynamic because signal go on changing
with respect to the time for a given value of Rc and Vs as shown in the figure here this is iB
and this is iC that is the characteristics in the amplification.
We make sure that this operates only in the linear region that is the reason we call it is an
active region and transistor work as an amplifier. So, this we call it dynamic characteristics in
which it is gone operating.
So, if a resistor RL was connected across the output terminal here then the total load presented
to the transistor amplifier would effectively be RC and RL in the parallel and the effective load
RC .RL
you can call RP  because that will be also responsible side your coming deciding
RC  RL
the collector current and flowing into the into load resistance.
So, note that the quiescent point is the same for both the load line associated with the RC and
the load line associated with the RP and the load line associated with the RC is termed as a d. c
load line and while the associated RP is with the a.c load line because that is giving the a. c
signal for the load.
So, transistor now coming to as an amplifier we have a three region. So, first is the active
region where B-E junction is forward bias because you are giving the signal to make this as
amplifier and VCB junction is reverse bias because you are providing the kind of reverse
biasing and can be implied for a voltage, current and power amplification that is for the
purpose we use as an amplifier and the saturation region which work as a close switch.
So, VB and VCB junctions are forward bias and then the value of IB and IC are high and the
value of VCE is small in the saturation is much smaller than the drop of the diode that is
normally we consider it is only 0.3 for the silicon transistor and suitable region where the
transistor is operating as a logic switch as a just flows and not a suitable region for
amplification because here the current gain is quite a small.
So, cut off region where the region below IB = 0 micro ampere and needs to be avoided if the
undistorted output signal is required and B-E junction and C-B junction are both are reverse
bias with the IB = 0, IC equal to not zero during the condition so IC = ICEO. So, this is the three
region when transistor operate as an amplifier.
So, now coming to the kind of numerical problem.

So, taking first numerical problem in the given circuit the silicon transistor has β = 75 and
collector voltage is VC = 9 volt then you can find out the ratio of RB. So, given condition is
15  9 9  0.7 I 6  RB
VC = 9 volt. So, we can say  I E and that is  I B . So, from E  .
RC RB I B RC  8.3
6  RB R
So, from here we can get a   1   B  105.13 .
8.3  RC RC
So, coming to the example 2 consider the circuit shown here in the figure where beta is 30
and the ICBO is 20 nanoampere and the input voltage is 5 volt then the transistor would be
operating in we have to find out in which operating mode this transistor operating assuming
the BJT is in active region and neglecting ICBO the leakage current. So, applying the
12 15 5 100
Thevenin’s on the input so we can say Vth    2.78V and Rth that is the
115 5
biasing corresponding to here so Rth  15k  ||100k   13k 
So, you will have now equivalent to circuit here. So, we have IC  I B . So,
2.78  0.7 12  0.2
I IB  0.16mA . So, IC  4.8mA and IC ( sat )   5.36mA and IC ( sat )  IC .
13k 2.2k
So, BJT active region because this is much lower than the saturation region means transistor
is pulled into the active region.
So, now coming to the example 3 two perfectly matched silicon transistor are connected as
shown in figure. Assuming the β of the transistor are very high and the forward bias voltage
drop in the diodes to be 0.7 the value of current I is in this case. So, you have a 1 kilo ohm
with the diode and 5 volt and – 5 volt is bias on the other side.
So, we can say since both the transistor are similar so VBE1  VBE 2 .
I C1 V  V 
So,  e  BE1 BE 2   1 .
IC 2  VT 
So, beta for both are same so let us say we can say I B1  I B 2  I B and applying the
Kirchhoff's law we can say
0  0.7  0.7   5
IR   3.6mA .
1k
And corresponding to applying the Kirchhoff's law the point p here so we can say
IC
I R  IC  2I B the current which is going to be will be the total current so  IC  2 that is

IC
IC  2 , β is very large. So, we can say I R  IC  3.6mA

So, coming to example 4 the transistor in this given circuit should always be in active region
taking VCE (saturation) = 0.2, VBE = 0.7 The maximum value of RC in which it can be used in
this circuit we have to find out the value. This RC so that it operates in always in active region
and β is given here already 100 ohm.
4.3
So, applying the Kirchhoff’s law that is 5  0.7  2k   I B ,  I B   2.15mA and
2k
collector current  IC  I B  215mA and applying the Kirchhoff’s voltage so that is
5  0.215RC  VCE .
So, from here you will find the VCE  0.2V and from which you can put the value
4.8
 0.215RC  5  0.2 becomes  RC  . So, R C should be therefore minimum value
0.215
of RC from this will be 22.32 to pull it into the active region.
So, now coming to example 5 a BJT has α = 0.99, IB = 25 microampere and ICBO = 200
nanoampere. Find the value of dc collector current, the dc emitter current and the percentage
error in the emitter current when the leakage current is neglected. So, we can say α = 0.99.

So, β from which we can get    99 and from this we can find out
1 
ICBO
I C  I B   2.495mA and dc current the emitter current follows from here
1   
IC  ICBO
IE   2.518mA .

So, neglecting the leakage current we can say IC  I B  99  25A so it becomes 2.475
IC 2.475mA
milliampere and I E    2.5mA and emitter current error will be your
 0.99
2.518  2.5
%error   0.71% .
2.518
So, now coming to example 6 in the circuit shown here of this transistor with the emitter
configuration so β is 100 and IBQ is your 20 micro ampere VCC is like a 15 volt and RC is 3
kilo ohm and ICBO = 0. Find (a) IEQ and (b) VCEQ and (c) find VCEQ if RC is changed to 6 kilo

ohm and all else remains the same. So, from this we can find out    0.9901 and ICBO
1 
= ICEO = 0. So, we get ICQ  I BQ  2mA .
ICQ 2mA
And I EQ    2.02mA So, from an application of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
 0.9901
around the collector current so we can call it VCBQ  VCC  ICQ RC  15   2mA  3k   9V and
IBQ is unchanged then ICQ is unchanged. So, VCBQ  VCC  ICQ RC  15   2mA  6k   3V .
Now coming to example 7. In the pnp silicon transistor circuit shown here we have a R B =
500 kilo ohm, RC = 2 kilo ohm and RE = 0, VCC = 15 volt, ICBO = 20 micro ampere and β= 70,
find the quiescent point collector current here as a solution
ICEO    1 ICBO   70  1 20A  1.42mA . Now applying the KVL loop in this case.
So, VCC  VBEQ  I BQ RB here that
VCC  VBEQ
 I BQ   28.6A and ICQ  I BQ  ICBO  3.42mA .
RB
Now coming to example 8. The silicon transistor of common base configuration circuit has α
= 0.99 and ICEO = 0 and also VEE = 4 volts and VCC = 12 volt if IEQ = 1.1 milliampere find the
RE the resistance here and if VCEQ is – 7 volt find the RC value of this resistance here. By
applying the Kirchhoff’s about the emitter voltage loop here.
VEE  VBEQ 4   0.7 

So, RE    3 .
I EQ 1.1mA
And by KVL around the transistor terminals so VCBQ  VCBQ  VBEQ  7   0.7   6.3V
and the negligible leakage current we can say ICQ  I BQ  0.99 1.1m  1.089mA and by
applying KVL around the base collector current on other side. So,
VCC  VCBQ
RC   5.234k  .
ICQ
So, coming to example 9; the silicon transistors in differential amplifier mode as you can see
here has a negligible leakage current and β1 = β2 = 60 and also RC = 6.8 kilo ohm RB = 10
kilo ohm and VCC and VEE = 15 volt and find the value of RE needed to bias the transistor
such that VCEQ1 = VCEQ2 = 8. So, by symmetry we can call it I EQ1  I EQ2 and by applying the
KCL we can say iE  I EQ1  I EQ2  2I EQ1 because both are identical.
So, we can say using the loop voltage we can VEE  I BQ RB  VBEQ  I EQ RE and from this

equation we can find out the I CQ  I EQ applying the KVL around the left loop. So,
 1
1
VCC  VEE  I EQ1 RC  VEQ1  2I EQ1 RC that is for typical transistor 1.
1  1
1
And applying VEE  I EQ1 RB  VBEQ1  2I EQ1 RE  I BQ1 RB  VBEQ1  iE RE . So, substituting 3
1  1
for this REIEQ it results second equation to
1  1 VCC  VBEQ1  VCEQ1   60  115  8  0.7 

I EQ1    1.18mA
1 RC  RB  60  6.8k   10k
and from here
1
VEE  I EQ1 RB  VBEQ1 15  0.7  10k 1.18m
1  1 60  1
RE    5.97k  .
2I EQ1 2  1.15m

Coming to example 10 in this case of common emitter amplifier with the bias capacitor on
both side. So, consider the common emitter amplifier shown in A 2.2 kilo ohm resistive load
is connected across the output terminals and a.c signal of 0.6 volt peak and internal resistance
of 10 kilo ohm is connected to the input terminal. So, effective input resistance of the
transistor is 2.7 kilo ohm.
And determine the current voltage and power gains of the stage. The transistor characteristics
and relevant load lines are shown in the next slide.
So, these are the characteristics equation of a.c and d.c line over the d.c line.
And from this we can have a calculation. So, first determine the extreme of the line. So, d.c
line is IC = 0 and VCE = 12. So, when VCE = 0 then IC = 12/1.8 that is your 6.7 milliampere
and then quiescent base current will be IBQ = 12/200 so it comes 0.06 milliampere that is 60
v 1.8  2.2
micro ampere and for a.c line, RP    1k  .
I 1.8  2.2
So, slope of a. c load line is – 1/RP that is – 1 mA/V through point A which is given by the
intersection of IB = 60 microhenry load line and d. c load line.
So, from a. c signal the effective input resistance is 2.7 || 200 kΩ ~ 2.7 kΩ and peak a.c
0.6
current will be now  47 A and hence the maximum base current will be
10  2.7  103
I BQ  Ibm  60  47  107 A and the minimum base current will be
I BQ  Ibm  60  47  13 A it will be going to 13 micro ampere to 107 micro ampere we will
be going to the base here in this circuit.
So, now from a. c load line we can say ic  5.1  0.9  4.22mA . So, this change in collector
current is shared between the 1.8 kilo ohm and the resistor 2.2 kilo ohm load resistor. Hence,
1.8 103
the change in the output current will be io  4.2   1.9mA and the change
1.8  2.2 103
io
in the input current will be ii  107  13  94 A and current gain will be Gi   20 for
ii
this modified circuit.
Now your change in the output voltage will be vo  vce  8.5  4.3  4.2Vpk  pk . And thus the
change in the input voltage given by the change in the base emitter current. So Vi  ii  Ri
putting the value it come 0.25 volt peak to peak and voltage gain will be the
v0 4.2
Gv    17 and power gain will be GP  Gv Gi  17  20  340 . So, that is the
vi 0.25
power gain we get it from this amplifier circuit.
Now these are some of the similar line the unsolved problem based on that for amplification
and different mode of the transistor.
And now we come to another part of this lecture that is called hybrid parameter for a
transistor because here we are considering transistor like a kind of two port network and we
already discussed this parameter in two port network.
So, we can just say here hybrid parameter of BJT even there also we have given example
kind of similar that h parameter is normally applied for BJT circuit. So, for small a. c signal
the transistor behave as a linear device because the output a. c signal is directly proportional
to the input a. c signal and under such circumstances the a.c operation of the transistor can be
described in terms of h parameters.
And now this is the transistor as a kind of two port network which we discussed already
earlier. So, we can say for hybrid parameter v1  h11i1  h12 v2 and i i2  h 21i1  h 22 v2 . So,
this is the V2 here like that is output voltage this is the input voltage this input current this is
output current and this transistor as an amplifier with this h parameter. Now, we can look into
how this h parameter play here the important role.
So, following points are worth noting while considering the behaviour of a transistor in terms
of h parameter. The value of h parameter of a transistor will depend upon the type of
connection used in the circuit whether common base, common emitter or common collector
and the value of h parameters also depends upon the d.c bias or operating point or Q point. If
the d.c operating point is changed and parameter will accordingly change.
(Refer Slide Time: 1:00:08)
And this is the same here the h parameter equation for this transistor BJT v1  h11i1  h12 v2
and i2  h 21i1  h 22 v2 . So, these are the h parameter h11, h12, h21 and h22 and here we call it for
common base configuration we call it hib hrb or this we call it hfb and hob and for common
emitter configuration this is very common you can say for amplification h11 followed hie and
h12, hre or h21, hfc and then h22 is your hoe.
And similarly for common collector configuration so it is called h11, hic then h12 is hrc, h21 is
hfe and h22 is hoc and this we normally call input impedance that output is short circuit A and
we call it like a reverse voltage and input circuit is open. Forward current output is short
circuit and output current is input short circuit. So, this is the configuration what we really
thought of two port network applying in the same manner.
We just calculate all these h parameters as two port network which we already discussed in
very much in detail.
So, now you can just see here this is the transistor in terms of V1, i1 and V2, i2 and with the R
L and input signal where V2 is VCE and i2 is Ic collector current that like as a common emitter
configuration; common emitter configuration is very common for amplification. So, that is
the reason we are taking an example here. So, V1 is V be that is the voltage which we apply
for base to emitter junction and i1 input current is the base current.
And output here it is certainly the voltage of Vce across the load and i2 is the collector current
which flows in the output and this is equivalent circuit into h parameters so here we are
applying Vbe volt current is Ib base current and this is the input impedance resistance input
resistance hre which you have defined and then this is the dependent voltage source hre into
Vce.
That is in terms of output voltage or V2 here and similarly for the second design we have here
a kind of impedance or you can say admittance 1/hoe and then you have a kind of current
source hfeIb. So, this becomes like as a transistor amplifier or equivalent transistor the h
parameter equivalents circuit like you have a dependent voltage for dependent current source.
And this dependent course so current source is in terms of input current this voltage source is
dependent on output voltage source as we have look into earlier two parameters.
Now from this equivalent circuit in h terms of parameters of BJT we can say
Vbe  hie Ib  hreVce and your output current Ic  hfe Ib  hoeVce . So, that is the this is the
impedance so we should multiply that will become an admittance and this is your impedance.
So, these are the two equations for input voltage and output current. So, hie the short circuit
input resistance or impedance hie values of 1.5 kilo ohm and hre is the open circuit reverse
voltage ratio and this is normally hre is kind of order of 0 and hfe the short circuit forward
current ratio that is normally current gain that is the order of 20 to 200.
And hoe is the open circuit output conductance or admittance that is hoe here which is used
here that is the order of 10 to 100 micro Siemens. So, these are the typical value for the
common transistor circuit line.
And the input impedance is normally Zin  Vbe / Ib with a. c load resistance across the output
port here C-E. So, applying the KVL in the output loop we can say hfe Ib  (hoe  1/ rL )Vce
that becomes the complete admittance into the multiplied by Vce the voltage applied across
here and the KVL in the input loop will be Vbe  hreVce  hie I b .
And from here you can find out the

h re h fe
Zin  hie 
1
h oe 
rL
that is reflected kind of input impedance here of this transistor amplifier.
And the output impedance Zout  Vce / I c with the short circuit across the input port and the
KVL in output we can say as hfe Ib   (hoe  1/ rL )Vce the voltage applied here and the
KVL in the input loop will be Vbe  hreVce  hie I b and from here we can find out the
1
Zout  .
h fe hre
hoe 
hie
And we can call it here the a. c load r L across the output because we say a.c load that is why
we are talking about this as a small notation. So, current gain will be Ai  I c / Ib and this
h fe
Ai  and voltage gain is Vce / Vbe in the output so that is  I c rL / Ib Zin and that is –
1  hoe rL
(rL / Zin ) Ai . And now voltage gain will be
h fe
Av 
 1
Zin  hoe  
 rL 
So, now coming to AC equivalent circuit for this transistor amplifier.
So, you have a common emitter amplifier which we already discuss even before with the
biasing circuit we have a biasing circuit corresponding to a bias resistance here as well as we
are having certainly along with the DC quantity as far as transistor is concerned. So, you have
AC signal, but we are biasing DC signal here so here will be DC for the output this is your
biasing capacity takes out.
So, here we have AC here we have AC in between these two capacitor take care the transistor
operates always with the unidirectional signal of current and voltage and here this is the
equivalent circuit how it is getting modified. So, you have input voltage with this resistance
and then we have a bias resistance here coming across here across the BE and that is the same
the gain we were talking about.
And then you have a base current flowing and on this side we have the AC load in parallel
the bias resistance and then we have a same equivalent circuit of the transistor we call it as 1
upon hoe into your current dependent source of the base current here like this is base current,
this is base current dependent current source from this side. So, that is a small signal AC
equivalent circuit in terms of hybrid parameters.
Rc RL
And that the same circuit here so we can say we can modify into Rp  . So, we can
Rc  RL
1 / hoe
call it like collector current will be I c   h fe I b that is the current source here. So,
1 / hoe  Rp
that will be net collector current coming here and the current gain of transistor Ic/ Ib will be
h fe
Ai  .
1  h oe R p
Rc
And IL load current will be equal to I L  I c in terms of this is divided circuit and
Rc  RL
Ii  Ib ( RB  hie ) / RB corresponding to this circuit and now net current
Ai Rc RB
Gi  that is your net current gain coming up here.
( Rc  RL )( RB  hie )
And now voltage gain will be here your Gv will be

Gv  Vce / Vbe  Ic Rp / Ib hie  (Rp / hie ) Ai .
So, your Gv  Rp hfe / hie (1  hoe Rp ) and power gain will be Gp | Gv  Gi | .
This is your AC equivalent for your common base. So, here we have a common that is
another transistor circuit here. We have a common base and we have an input corresponding
to emitter and output is again corresponding to the collector here and you have equivalent
here. So, we have an equivalent circuit here again you have AC input with the resistance and
you have again the bias resistance corresponding to minus voltage here.
And you have like hie they are transistor equivalent and here you have an emitter current, the
input current that is the emitter current dependent the voltage source and here you have 1/hie
into that is the equivalent you have RP which is equivalent biasing and load resistance.
So, from here this is the net equivalent where you can find out collector current
Ic  hfb Ie (1/ hob ) / (1/ hob  Rp ) and current gain from here we can find Gi  I c / I e that is
Gi  hfb / (1  hob Rp ) and power gain will be Gp | Gv  Gi | where the voltage gain is
Gl  Vcb / Veb  Ic Rp / Ie hib  (Rp / hib )Gi
and G v will be equal to Gv  Rp hfb / hib (1  hob Rp ) and from here you can get the power
gain.
So, this AC equivalent circuit of the transistor amplifier. So, we can say for common base
amplifier or common amplifier. So, Ai is a negative and there is a 180 degree phase shift
between the input current and output current and Av is positive and the input voltage Veb is
the output voltage and Vcb is and here for common emitter amplifier this is very commonly
used.
Ai is positive and input current Ib and output current both are in phase with each other and Av
is negative there is 180 degree phase shift between the input voltage and the output voltage.
Now, coming to what is the limitation of this hybrid or for H parameters for a transistor.
The two major limitations of the use of this parameter. It is very difficult to get the exact
value of h parameters for a particular transistor and it is because these parameters are
subjected to considerable variation unit to unit variation and variation due to change in
temperature and variation due to change in operating or quiescent point and the h parameter
approach gives the correct answer for a small a. c signal only.
And it is because a transistor behaves as a linear device for a small a. c signal as a linear
amplifier.
And these are hybrid parameter variation how it is taking place for this. So, how the
temperature hoe changes and hie changes with respect to the temperature variation like how
these parameters are affected and this is like variation with respect to the collector current.
So, here you can just see here collector current is milliampere and you can say all four
parameters your hfe, hie, hoe and hre changes all four parameter changes because of this.
So, these are because of this limitation temperature and with these limitations these are the
problem.
So, limitation of this BJT. For most bipolar transistor input resistance has given hie tends to
be about 1 kilo ohm which is of electronic circuit tends to be rather a small value and it
follows that there is always a significant input current which has two effects. Amplification
gain is somewhat limited and lower levels increase the size and rating of the circuit
component more than the desirable.
Now, coming to part of stabilizing the voltage supply where we really use stabilizing voltage.
So, network which supply; the steady voltage is called a stabilizing circuit and it maintains a
constant output voltage when the supply voltage varies and or the load current changes. We
use transistor as a kind of voltage stabilizer.
So, here assuming the supply voltage is derived from a rectified a.c source and the stabilizing
circuit is usually inserted between rectifiers and associated smoothing circuit as shown in
here. So, un-stabilized voltage with the diode, so that it cannot have a back through and this is
the stabilizing circuit we want to stabilize this transistor you can say as a stabilized voltage
output across the load.
This is very popular application of the transistor as in power supply as a stabilized power
supply.
So, in order to indicate how a stabilization circuit performs, we use a factor termed the
stabilizing factor and it assumes that the load required to a constant in this. So,
changein stabilized voltageacrossload
Stability Factor S =
changein unstabilized voltage
So, for satisfactory stabilization S should be small, effectively smaller and better.
One of the most, simple stabilizing circuits consists of a resistor in series with the load as
well as the Zener diode in parallel with the load. So, we connect across and here we connect a
resistance and we connect a Zener and that is the load resistance and it is a stabilizing circuit.
Why we connect the load the voltage what is the difference it should be absorbed by this
otherwise there will be large current flowing into the Zener and you will get a stabilized
voltage across the Zener which apply across the load.
And the particular characteristic of Zener diode are that the voltage across it remains nearly
constant provided the load current remains between the set limit and the unstabilized voltage
remains also within the set limit like this circuit can work within the limit.
So, the effectiveness of a stabilizing circuit when responding to changes of load current
assuming the unstabilized voltage is held constant is indicated by the effective internal
changein output voltage VS
resistance of the supply circuit that is Ro   .
changein output current I L
So, stabilizer which can handle better range of variation effected by transistor in series with
the resistance and this is the arrangement which normally use the dc supply for stabilization.
So, here we operate transistor as amplifier and this is the stabilizing circuit and we expect the
load voltage will be constant here and this is unstabilized voltage and accordingly as the input
voltage vary we connect it as a kind of let us say base current which we amplify it.
And voltage across you can call Vce here the voltage across the transistor go on changing as
the input voltage vary. So this tape also varies so that the output voltage remains across the
load remained well stabilized as constant. So, this is used as a transistor amplifier most of
your regulated power supply you might have seen in the laboratory. So, that is the basic
concept so I wanted to discuss as a transistor a kind of you can say as a stabilizer used in
stabilizing circuit.
So, we say stabilizing voltage supply for this is for high power because Zener cannot work
for that much power. So, current through the transistor is varied by altering the voltage
applied to the base and the potentiometer is a cumbersome and in more practical arrangement
is a comparator network is used in which the output voltage is proportional to the difference
between the two voltages.
And one derived the unstabilized source voltage and then other is from the voltage of the
load.
And this is a typical kind of really a practical supply the arrangement is shown here. Again
we have a transistor amplifier and we have an output voltage here. So, we are taking as a one
reference we are generating from the output voltage which is well regulator voltage and we
consider this as a proportional from voltage stabilizer because we consider the output voltage
is well regulated.
So, we are taking part of this as a reference voltage and the feedback voltage we are taking
input from this voltage with the typical kind of biasing where unstabilized voltage to this
amplifier from which we derive from the biasing we derive your base current so that it
automatically works as a kind of amplifier according to the unstabilized voltage which not
only have the DC only, but it has also AC component. So, this work as a good stabilization
circuit for incorporating the comparative network.
Let us talk about how to operate the stabilizer operation. Here reference voltage Vz is
obtained from the unstabilized supply voltage and it is simply derived from a Zener diode as
shown because that is only for the circuit for just as a signal from the input to the base current
only. The output voltage is applied to the potential divider of R1 and R2 and voltage across R2
is V2 and should be more or less equal to VZ.
And the difference between the V2 and VZ is detected by comparator network and amplified
by d. c amplifier. The amplifier output is applied to the base of the transistor.
And if the voltage comparison shows the voltage V2 and VZ are equal there is no output from
the amplifier, hence there is no control to the transistor and the collector current remains
unchanged and should be there the difference between the V2 and VZ this is amplified and
changes the bias condition of the transistor and this either causes the emitter current to
increase or the decrease in the change in output voltage.
And this causes V2 change until change until it equalizes VZ and at this point the voltages are
equal and no further change occurs and this arrangement can produce very low stabilization
factor as well as low internal resistance.
And now coming to that is as an amplification we use in practical power supply. Now this is
as a switch we use normally as a kind of switch mode power supply or as a switch in many
your electrical circuit. So, here also we have like again this as a common emitter junction
transistor characteristic that it is dc and this is a collector current we have an active region.
We have a saturation region and we have your we call it your cut off region. So, considering
the load line for defining as a switch means we should operate in saturation or in cut off and
make sure that it does not go to inactive region otherwise you will have a lot of heat
dissipation because we are deciding the design of the switch corresponding to these two
region only. So, considering the load line of a transistor amplifier as shown in this.
And there are two extreme conditions when both junctions are reverse bias there is a cut off
region that is corresponding to this and when both junctions are forward bias there is a
saturation of this coming here.
So, transistor as a switch.
Let consider first as a switch for saturation region. So, transistor will be biased so that a
maximum amount of base current is applied which results in a depletion layer being the small
as possible and maximum current can flow through the transistor and this current is decided
by external circuit and we say transistor is switch on fully on. Ideally this should have a zero
voltage across the transistor that VC saturation that is normally a 0.3 volt for silicon transistor.
And this is the typical kind of mode and here we have the limit the saturation current here,
but it can be otherwise say kind of part load and this is the base resistance and base current
and here when we apply the base current we consider this transistor goes on. If base current is
above particular limit then only it got into saturation and then this becomes as just only
switch, there is very negligible voltage compared to this voltage.
It is a negligible voltage across this junction of voltage across these Vce. So, it is coming as a
switch.
Another is off state then we can define the cut off state when both the junctions are reverse
bias and VB is less than 0.7 volt and IC = 0. Hence the operating condition of the transistor are
zero input current is zero, output collector current and maximum collector voltage which
results in a large depletion layer and no current flow through the device and therefore
transistor is considered as a fully switch off.
And this is the condition when base current is zero, collector current is also zero and this
consider switch is open. So, this open and saturation means as a closed switch we are using
lot of electronic circuit or circuit as a switch.
So, for all the imperfections the transistor switch is useful because it operates effectively in
the transmission of digital signal and also have a quick switching time, thereby responding to
very high bit rates.
And this is as a transistor as a switch for amplification you can just say LDR sensor and you
have here kind of LDR diode with resistance and how the relay is operating with this
amplification. this is the relay you will be energizing when you switch off this is de-energize.
When you switch on it is getting energize and that relay will close the switch for total power
circuit.
So, this switch to operate to your normally the relay here. So, transistor used in a light
operated switch for operating this from simple light also that is you might have seen how
LDR sensor automated switch are operated with the light corresponding in the relay operation
your lamb circuit or lighting circuit lies.
This is the kind of application, transistor operating as a relay connected to the DC motor. this
is the DC motor which operates closes on the same kind of relay that is another application.
Now coming to the numerical problem. A common emitter amplifier comprising a transistor
parameter hie = 800 ohm, hfe = 50, hoe =20 micro Siemens and the bias component and
coupling capacitors have negligible effects. The input a.c signal is 60 millivolt and from peak
to peak internal resistance for a source internal resistance of 2.2 kilo ohm and the total load
on the amplifier circuit is 4 kilo ohm. Determine the current voltage and power gains of the
amplifier.
This is the circuit we already talk about common emitter amplification with all the parameter
mentioned in this equivalent circuit of the transistor of your h parameters and we can just
60  103
calculate all parameters hoe = 50 kilo ohm and Ib   20  106 A and the current
2200  800
gains comes Ic you can calculate from 926 microampere. So, current gain
I c 926  106
Gi    46.3 .
Ib 20  106
And now you can find out voltage gain Gv  Vce / Vbe  Ic Rp / Ib hie putting the value it
comes – 231.5 and power gain is multiplication of both voltage and current gain,
Gp  | Gv  Gi | and it comes 10,718 these signal are very small micro ampere only. So, that
much amplification is possible into your milllivolt. It is extremely going to 60 millivolt and
you will find many sound circuit, main application your volt signal is very small which can
be amplified to some voltage you apply for many circuit.
So, coming to second example the BJT parameter in the circuit are shown of this again
common your emitter amplifier circuit hie = 2 kilo ohm, hoe = 25 micro Siemens and hfe = 55.
The load resistor dissipates a.c signal power of 10 millivolt. Determine the power gain of the
amplifier and the signal in induced emf apply.
So, this is the equivalent circuit with the load resistance here as well as the input bias
1
resistance. So, from you can find out that comes 40 kilo ohm and the output power is
hoe
given 10 millivolt and from this you can find out what is the Vce that is across the load that
comes 10 volt and applying the KCL there. So, you can find
10 10 10
55Ib     Ib  40.9 106 A
40 10 10 10 10 10
3 3 3
And applying the KCL for input current so you can have
 2  103 
Ii   40.9  106    40.9  106. 
 80  103 
so applying this so it becomes input current comes again 41.9 micro ampere and input signal
you can find out now current multiply the resistance of these two components so it comes
0.29 volt.
And from here the input power can be Pi  Vbe Ii putting the value it comes like your 3.43
micro watt and the output power is already given 10 milli watt. So, power gain is
Po
GP   2920 for this transistor and this is the configuration with common emitter
Pi
configuration as a power amplifier.
So, coming to numerical 3. A BJT is used in common emitter arrangement has the following
hybrid parameter when the d.c operating point is VCEQ = 10 volt, ICQ of 1 milli ampere, hie =
2000 ohm, hoe is hoe =10−4 Ʊ, hre is equal to 10-3 and hfe = 50. So, a.c load line seen by the
transistor is rL = 600 ohm and determine the input impedance, current gain and voltage gain
and what will be approximately the value of reasonable approximation.
So, this is same equivalent circuit of your h parameters of with common emitter and the input
h re h fe
impedance in terms of this you can find out Zin  hie  so just putting the value you
1
h oe 
rL
will get 1972 and the input impedance approximately equal to hie that will be around 2000
ohm.
And current gain can be I c / Ib . So, just putting the value of this you get 47 and this is
equivalent to like Ai  hfe  50 and voltage gain Vce / Vbe the value comes -14.5 and
approximately A v the voltage gain, Av  (rL / hie )hfe putting all these values it comes to -
15. So, voltage gain is the ratio of load to the input impedances times the current gain that
comes here -15.
So, coming to example 4 in the common emitter which is a normal amplifier shown R C = RL
= 800 ohm, Ri = 0 and R1 = 1.2 kilo ohm R2 = 2.7 kilo ohm and hre = 0, hoe is 100 micro
Siemens and hfe = 90 and hie = 200 calculate the voltage gain and the current gain.
So, in this equivalent circuit putting the value here of this IL so get L here and then the
voltage gain putting in this equivalent from here so you will get around putting all the
parameters here with including the load resistance. So, you get - 173.08.
and again putting the value in Ib all these so RB that biasing types comes as 831 ohm and
from this relation you can find out Ib. So, current gain iL / ib you can find out from this putting
all value you can put – 34.87.
So, coming to example 5 for typical common emitter amplifier that is normally we talk about
an amplifier this is a h parameter equivalent circuit of this total transistor amplifier hre = 10–4
hfe = 100 and hoe = 12 micro Siemens, RL = 2 kilo ohm. Calculate the current gain, voltage
gain and input impedance, output admittances and thus is the characteristics of impedance
typical common amplifier.
So, here for this transistor amplifier for common amplifier these are the output current
relation the current gain and inputting the value of this current gain. So, we get current gain -
97.7 which is approximately 100.
And then from this to find out voltage gain this we already derived the relation putting the
value it comes 199.2 so this we can say approximately 200.
And then eliminating the value so just putting the Zin putting in the formula all the data given
here so we put 980.5 and that is approximately 1,000 ohm.
And from the characteristics RL derive putting all these value we get the output as impedance
corresponding to 500 kilo ohm in this relation and for putting all these values we get the
output impedance 500 kilo ohm.
And based on the example characteristics of the common emitter can be summarize the large
current gain 100, large voltage gain 200 and power gain 20,000 and input output phase shift
is 180, input impedance 1 kilo ohm and high output impedance is around 0.5 mega ohm.
These are some of the unsolved problem.

Which you can work out.
In the same way for amplifier.

And these are the references which we have used for the developing this lecture material and
thank you very much.

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Introduction to Electrical Engineering

Prof. Bhim Singh

Welcome to the course on Introduction to Electrical Engineering. We will have a Lecture 22

This common emitter characteristic is very popular specially as a power amplifier. We

(Refer Slide Time: 19:24)

Now, coming to the load line for a transistor.

general the concept a. c load line arise in this configuration.

(Refer Slide Time: 32:41)

So, now coming to the kind of numerical problem.

(Refer Slide Time: 45:29)

(Refer Slide Time: 50:22)

So, VCC  VBEQ  I BQ RB here that

VEE  VBEQ 4   0.7 

(Refer Slide Time: 52:35)

(Refer Slide Time: 53:45)

1  1 VCC  VBEQ1  VCEQ1   60  115  8  0.7 

(Refer Slide Time: 54:57)

And from here you can find out the

(rL / Zin ) Ai . And now voltage gain will be

And now voltage gain will be here your Gv will be

(Refer Slide Time: 1:09:00)

Gl  Vcb / Veb  Ic Rp / Ie hib  (Rp / hib )Gi

These are some of the unsolved problem.

In the same way for amplifier.

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