Unit 01: Introduction to Analog Circuits

Unit 01: Introduction to Analog Circuits

Transistor as an Amplifier
Faithful Amplification
What is Biasing? Need of biasing
Potential Divider Bias Circuit
Numerical [using Method-I and Method-II]
Transistor as an Electronic Switch
How to identify region of operation for transistor?
What is FET? Difference between BJT & FET
Construction and working of N-channel JFET.

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

➢ A BJT is a three terminal semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic

signals and electrical power.
➢ It is referred as one of the most important inventions in the 20th Century !
➢ It is invented in 1948 by American physicists John Bardeen and Walter Brattain while
working under William Shockley at Bell Labs. The three shared the 1956 Nobel Prize
in Physics for their achievement.
➢ Transistors revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and
cheaper radios, calculators, and computers !

Construction of a Transistor

A transistor consists of two PN junctions formed by sandwiching either P-Type or N-

Type semiconductor between a pair of opposite types. There are two types of transistors,
namely – NPN Transistor & PNP Transistor

Size ➔ Collector > Emitter > Base

Doping ➔ Emitter > Collector > Base

Working of NPN Transistor

1. Emitter-Base junction should be Forward Biased and Collector-Base junction should

be Reverse Biased
2. IE = IB + IC { Since, IB is very small ➔ IE ≅ IC }

1|Page
 Unit 01: Introduction to Analog Circuits

*Only majority charge carriers are discussed here !

Transistor as an Amplifier

By understanding the working of transistor it can be stated that-

Basic amplifying action is produced by transferring a current {Since, IE ≅ IC } from Low
Resistance Path to High Resistance Path.

TRANSfer + ResISTOR = TRANSISTOR !

500 mV
IE = = 25mA
20Ω

we know that, IC ≅ I𝐸

output voltage = IC × 𝑅C

∴ output voltage = 1kΩ × 25mA = 25V

Transistor Configurations

The transistor has three terminals: Emitter (E), Base (B) & Collector (C). But in the
circuit connections we need four terminals, two terminals for input and another two
terminals for output. To overcome this problem one terminal is used as common for
both input and output actions. Using this property different circuits can be constructed
and these structures are called Transistor Configurations. Generally there are three
different configurations of transistors. They are:

1. Common Base (CB) Configuration: No current gain but voltage gain

2. Common Collector (CC) Configuration: Current gain but No voltage gain
3. Common Emitter (CE) Configuration: Both current gain and voltage gain

2|Page
 Unit 01: Introduction to Analog Circuits

Common Emitter Configuration

▪ Input Current: IB
▪ Input Voltage: VBE
▪ Output Current: IC
▪ Output Voltage: VCE
▪ VBB : Forward Biasing Voltage
▪ VCC : Reverse Biasing Voltage

VCE = VCC − IC R C
IC = β IB

where, β is current amplification factor in CE

configuration

*Generally, input is weak analog signal which requires amplification.

Transistor Region of Operations

➢ The supply of suitable external DC voltage is called as Biasing. Either forward or

reverse biasing is done to the emitter and collector junctions of the transistor.
➢ These biasing methods make the transistor circuit to work in four regions:

Sr. Emitter-Base Collector-Base Region of Application

No. Junction Junction Operation
1. Forward Bias Reverse Bias Active Region Amplifier

2. Forward Bias Forward Bias Saturation Region Switch

3. Reverse Bias Reverse Bias Cut-Off Region

4. Reverse Bias Forward Bias Inverse Active ---

Faithful Amplification

The process of raising the strength of a weak signal without any change in its general
shape is known as a faithful amplification. (OR) The increase in magnitude of the
signal without any change in its shape is known as faithful amplification.

The key factor for achieving the faithful amplification is that the base emitter junction
of transistor remains forward biased and collector junction reverse biased. To ensure
Faithful amplification following conditions must be specified.

1. Proper Zero Signal Collector Current: The value of zero signal collector current
should be at least equal to the maximum collector current due to signal alone.

3|Page
 Unit 01: Introduction to Analog Circuits

2. Proper Minimum Base-Emitter Voltage (VBE): In order to achieve faithful

amplification, the base emitter voltage VBE should not fall below 0.3 V for Ge
transistor and 0.7 V for Si transistor at any instant.

3. Proper Minimum Collector-Emitter Voltage (VCE): For faithful amplification,

the collector emitter voltage VCE should not fall below 0.5 V for germanium and 1.0
V for silicon transistors at any instant.

Transistor Biasing

Transistor Biasing is the process of setting a transistors DC operating voltage or current

conditions to the correct level so that any AC input signal can be amplified correctly by
the transistor.

Need for Biasing:

If a signal of very small voltage is given to the input of BJT, it cannot be amplified.
Because, for a BJT, to amplify a signal, two conditions have to be met
1. The input voltage should exceed cut-in voltage (VBE = 0.7V for Silicon transistor)
for the transistor to be ON.
2. The BJT should be in the ACTIVE region, to be operated as an amplifier.
*In short, Biasing of transistor is required to achieve faithful amplification !

The basic purpose of transistor biasing is to keep base-emitter junction properly forward
biased and collector-base junction properly reverse biased during the application of
signal. This can be achieved with bias battery or associating circuit with a transistor.
The latter method is more efficient and frequently employed! The circuit which provides
transistor biasing is known as Biasing Circuit. There are different types of Biasing circuit:
1. Base Resistor Method (or Fixed Biased Method)
2. Emitter Bias Method
3. Biasing with Collector Feedback Resistor
4. Potential Divider Biasing (or Voltage Divider Biasing)

4|Page
 Unit 01: Introduction to Analog Circuits

Potential Divider Biasing

➢ This is most widely used method of biasing

➢ In this method two resistors R1 & R2 are connected
across Vcc & provide biasing
➢ The name “potential divider” comes from the
potential divider formed by R1 and R2
➢ The voltage drop across R2 forward biases the
emitter base junction
➢ This causes base current and hence, collector
current flow in the zero signal condition

Circuit Analysis: Method-I (Approximate Analysis)

Let, current flowing through R1 is I1. As base current

is very small (IB ≅ 0), it will also flow through R2

VCC
∴ I1 =
R1 + R 2

Hence voltage across R 2 is V2 = I1 . R 2

R2
V2 = ( )V
R1 + R 2 CC

Applying KVL to the input side,

V2 − VBE − VE = 0
i.e.,
V2 = VBE + VE = VBE + IE R E

V2 − VBE
IE =
RE
But, we know that IC ≅ IE
V2 − VBE
∴ IC =
RE
Applying KVL to the output side, we get

VCC − IC R C − VCE − IE R E = 0
i.e.,
VCE = VCC − IC R C − IE R E

Since, IC ≅ IE above equation can be written as:

VCE = VCC − IC (R C + R E )

5|Page
 Unit 01: Introduction to Analog Circuits

Example on Potential Divider Biasing (Method-I)

Ex. The circuit shown in the figure uses Silicon

transistor. Find out the values of VCE and IC .

Solution:

R2 3kΩ
V2 = ( ) VCC = ( ) 15V = 5V
R1 + R 2 6kΩ + 3kΩ

Applying KVL to the input side,

V2 − VBE − VE = 0
i.e.,
V2 = VBE + VE = VBE + IE R E

V2 − VBE 5 − 0.7
IE = = = 4.3 mA
RE 1kΩ

*Note: for Silicon transistor 𝑉𝐵𝐸 =0.7V

But, we know that IC ≅ IE

∴ IC = 4.3 mA

Applying KVL to the output side, we get

VCC − IC R C − VCE − IE R E = 0

VCE = VCC − IC R C − IE R E

∵ IC ≅ IE above equation can be written as:

VCE = VCC − IC (R C + R E )

VCE = 15V − 4.3mA (0.47kΩ + 1kΩ)

VCE = 8.68 V

Circuit Analysis: Method-II (Using Thevenin’s Theorem)

Thevenin’s Theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit, no matter
how complex, to an equivalent circuit with just a single voltage source (VTH ) and series
resistance (R TH ) connected to a load.

R2 R1 . R 2
VTH = ( )V and R TH = R1 ||R 2 =
R1 + R 2 CC R1 + R 2

6|Page
 Unit 01: Introduction to Analog Circuits

Applying KVL to the input side,

VTH − IB R TH − VBE − IE R E = 0

VTH = IB R TH + VBE + IC R E … since, IC ≅ IE

VTH = IB R TH + VBE + β IB R E … since, IC = β IB

VTH = VBE + IB (β R E + R TH )

VTH − VBE VTH − VBE

∴ IB = and IC =
β R E + R TH R
R E + TH
β
Applying KVL to the output side, we get

VCC − IC R C − VCE − IE R E = 0
i.e.,
VCE = VCC − IC R C − IE R E

Since, IC ≅ IE above equation can be written as:

VCE = VCC − IC (R C + R E )

Example on Potential Divider Biasing (Method-II)

Ex: The circuit shown in the figure uses Silicon transistor having β=100. Find out the
values of IB , IC and VCE .

7|Page
 Unit 01: Introduction to Analog Circuits

Solution:

Replacing the given circuit by Thevenin’s equivalent

circuit,
R2
VTH = ( )V
R1 + R 2 CC

3kΩ
VTH = ( ) 15V = 5V
6kΩ + 3kΩ
Also,
R1 . R 2 3 × 6
R TH = = = 2 kΩ
R1 + R 2 6+3

Applying KVL to the input side,

VTH − IB R TH − VBE − IE R E = 0

VTH = IB R TH + VBE + IC R E ∵ IC ≅ IE

VTH = IB R TH + VBE + β IB R E ∵ IC = β IB

VTH = VBE + IB (β R E + R TH )

VTH − VBE (5 − 0.7)V

∴ IB = =
β R E + R TH 100 × 1kΩ + 2kΩ

4.3V
IB = = 0.042 mA
102kΩ
Now,
IC = β IB = 100 × 0.042 mA = 4.2 mA

Applying KVL to the output side, we get

VCC − IC R C − VCE − IE R E = 0
i.e.,
VCE = VCC − IC R C − IE R E

Since, IC ≅ IE above equation can be written as:

VCE = VCC − IC (R C + R E )

VCE = 15 − 4.2 mA (470Ω + 1kΩ)

∴ VCE = 15 − 6.174 = 8.826 𝑉

8|Page
 Unit 01: Introduction to Analog Circuits

Transistor as an Electronic Switch:

➢ A transistor can be operated in three

modes: active region, saturation
region and cut-off region.
➢ In the ACTIVE region, transistor
works as an amplifier.
➢ The two operating regions of
transistor Saturation Region (fully-
ON) and the Cut-off Region (fully-
OFF) are used to operate a transistor
as a switch.

Working of Transistor in Cut-off Region

The operating conditions of the

transistor are zero input base current
(IB=0), zero output collector current
(Ic=0) and maximum collector voltage
(VCE=VCC)

Therefore, the transistor is switched to

“Fully-OFF”.

Working of Transistor in Saturation Region

The operating conditions of transistor

are maximum base current (IB),
resulting in maximum collector
current (IC = Icsat) and minimum
collector-emitter voltage (VCE = 0).

Therefore, transistor is switched to

“Fully-ON”.

9|Page
 Unit 01: Introduction to Analog Circuits

How to identify Region of operation?

Step I: Calculate the base current

V −V
IB = inR BE
in
If IB ≤ 0 ➔ Cut-off Region
If IB > 0 ➔ Active or Saturation

Step II: Let, transistor is working in Active Region

and find out values of ICsat and IC
V
Where, ICsat = RCC and IC = βIB
C

Step III: Compare values of ICsat and IC

If IC ≥ ICsat ➔ Saturation
If IC < ICsat ➔ Active

Example: Find the region of operation, 𝐈𝐂 & 𝐕𝐂𝐄 .

A] Vin = 0.2V
B] Vin = 3.7V
C] Vin = 7.7V

Solution:

A] By applying KVL to input side, we get

Vin − VBE 0.2 − 0.7

IB = = = −2.5 𝜇𝐴
R in 200 𝑘𝛺

Since, IB < 0, it is in Cut-off Region !

Hence, IB = 0, IC = 0 and VC𝐸 = VC𝐶 = 10𝑉

B] By applying KVL to input side, we get

Vin − VBE 3.7 − 0.7

IB = = = 15 μA
R in 200 kΩ

Since, IB > 0, it should be in either active/saturation Region

Let, transistor is working in Active Region

VCC 10
∴ ICsat = = 4 kΩ = 2.5 mA and IC = βIB = 100 × 15 μA = 1.5 mA
RC

Since, IC < ICsat , it is in Active Region !

Hence, IC = 1.5 mA and

VCE = VCC − IC R C = 10 − 1.5 mA × 4kΩ = 4 V

10 | P a g e
 Unit 01: Introduction to Analog Circuits

C] By applying KVL to input side, we get

Vin − VBE 7.7 − 0.7

IB = = = 35 μA
R in 200 kΩ

Since, IB > 0, it should be in either active/saturation Region

Let, transistor is working in Active Region

VCC 10
∴ ICsat = = 4 kΩ = 2.5 mA and IC = βIB = 100 × 35 μA = 3.5 mA
RC

Since, IC > ICsat , it is in Saturation Region !

Hence, IC = ICsat = 2.5 mA and VCE = 0𝑉

Field Effect Transistors [FET]

BJT has two principle disadvantages:

1. Low input resistance because of forward emitter-base junction
2. Considerable noise level because of its bipolar nature !
The field-effect transistor (FET) is a type of transistor which uses an electric field to
control the flow of current. It has three terminals: Source, Gate and Drain. FETs are also
known as unipolar transistors since, they involve single carrier-type operation. That is,
FETs use either electrons or holes as charge carriers in their operation, but not both.
There are two basic types of FETs:
▪ JFET (Junction Field Effect Transistor)
▪ MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor)

Difference between BJT & FET:

SN BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor) FET (Field Effect Transistor)

01 BJT is bipolar device. Its operation FET is a unipolar device. Its operation
depends on both majority charge depends on majority charge carriers
carriers and minority charge carriers. [either holes or electrons]. Hence, it is
Hence, it is more noisy. less noisy.
02 Input impedance of BJT is very small. Input impedance of FET is very large.
03 It has high output impedance. It has low output impedance.
04 It is the current control device. It is the voltage controlled device.
05 It is temperature dependent device. It has better heat stability.
06 It is bigger in size than FET. It is smaller in size than BJT.
07 BJT has three terminals (base, Emitter FET has three terminals (Drain,
and Collector). It has different sizes and Source and Gate). It is symmetric
doping. Hence, it is asymmetric. [means drain & source can be
interchanged]

11 | P a g e
 Unit 01: Introduction to Analog Circuits

Junction Field Effect Transistors [JFET]

➢ JFET consists of a p-type or n-type silicon bar containing two PN junctions at the
sides as shown in figure. Bar forms conducting channel for charge carriers.
➢ If bar is n-type then it is called as n-channel JFET and if the bar is p-type then it is
called as p-channel JFET. The two PN junction forming diodes are connected
internally and common terminal called GATE is taken out.

N-channel JFET:

Important points to be remembered:

1. The input circuit ( i.e., gate to source) of JFET is reversed biased (VGS is negative).
Hence, device has high input impedance.
2. The drain is biased with respect to source such that drain current flows from drain
to source (VDS is positive)
3. In all JFETs, source current is equal to the drain current ! [ID = IS]

Symbol for P-channel and N-channel JFET

Construction and Working of N-channel JFET

The gate is reverse biased. If a voltage applied between the source and drain, the N-type
bar would conduct in either direction because of the doping. Figure (a) shows the
depletion region at the gate junction. The depletion region extends more deeply into
the channel side due to the heavy gate doping and light channel doping.

12 | P a g e
 Unit 01: Introduction to Analog Circuits

The thickness of the depletion region can be increased by applying moderate reverse
bias (fig. b). This increases the resistance of the source to drain channel by narrowing
the channel. Increasing the reverse bias further increases the depletion region,
decreases the channel width, and increases the channel resistance (fig. c). Finally
increasing the reverse bias voltage VGS will pinch-off the channel current (fig. d). The
channel resistance will be very high. This VGS at which pinch-off occurs is called as
pinch-off voltage (VP). In summation, the channel resistance can be controlled by the
degree of reverse biasing on the gate. It is clear from the discussion that current from
drain to source can be controlled by the application of potential (electric field) on the
gate. Hence, the device is known as Field Effect Transistors.

The drain source voltage VDS, not shown in previous figures, distorts the depletion
region, enlarging it on the drain side of the gate. As drain voltage VDS increased, the
gate depletion region expands toward the drain as shown in figure.

13 | P a g e
 Unit 01: Introduction to Analog Circuits

Difference between JFET & BJT

▪ In a JFET, there is only one type of carrier (i.e., holes in p-type channel and electrons
in n-type channel). For this reason it is also called Unipolar Transistor. However, in
an ordinary BJT, both electrons and holes play role in conduction. Therefore, it is
called as bipolar transistor.
▪ As the input circuit of a JFET is reverse biased, therefore, it has a high input
impedance. However, the input circuit of a BJT is forward biased and hence has low
input impedance.
▪ The primary functional difference between the JFET and BJT is that no current enters
the gate of JFET (IG = 0). However, in typical BJT base current might be a few µA.
▪ A BJT uses the current into its base to control a large current between collector and
emitter. Whereas, a JFET uses voltage on the gate terminal to control the current
between drain and source.
▪ In JFET, there is no junction. Therefore, noise level in JFET is very small.

Advantages of JFET

A JFET is a voltage controlled, constant current device in which variation in input

voltage control the output current. Some of the advantages of JFET are:
▪ It has a very high input impedance. This permits high degree of isolation between
the input and output circuits.
▪ The operation of a JFET depends upon the bulk material current carriers that do not
cross junctions. Therefore, the inherent noise of transistors are not present in a JFET.
▪ JFET has a negative temperature co-efficient of resistance. This avoids the risk of
thermal runaway.
▪ JFET has a very high power gain. This eliminates the necessity of using driver stages.
▪ A JFET has a smaller size, longer life and high efficiency

Important Questions:

1. Describe the working of BJT connected in common emitter configuration.

2. What is biasing? Explain the need of biasing.
3. Explain the working of transistor as switch.
4. Explain Potential Divider Biasing method with a circuit diagram.
5. Explain the construction and working of n-channel JFET.
6. Distinguish between BJT and FET.

14 | P a g e