MODULE I

DEVELOP BASIC SINGLE STAGE AND MULTISTAGE

AMPLIFIERS
Syllabus:
Transistor biasing – need - load line – operating point – stabilization of
operating point - Biasing circuits – requirements - list - fixed and voltage divider
bias circuits.
Single Stage CE Amplifier with voltage divider biasing - principle of operation -
expression for voltage gain, current gain, power gain, input and output
impedances– simple problems - frequency response – bandwidth. Emitter
follower –circuit diagram - features – applications. Multistage amplifier - need
– overall gain – gain in dB – simple problems - methods of inter-stage coupling
- RC coupled, transformer coupled and direct coupled multistage amplifiers -
working principle - frequency response - applications – comparison
Define Transistor
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electrical
signals
Types of transistor: PNP and NPN
PNP- when an N-type material is sandwiched between two p-type materials the
resulting structure is called PNP transistor
NPN – when a p-type material is sand witched between two N-type materials
the resulting structure is called NPN transistor
Transistor terminals: transistor having three terminals they are collector, emitter
and base the emitter and collector are of same type of material, their functions
cannot be interchanged. They have different physical and electrical properties.
The collector section is made physically larger than the emitter section. The
base is very thin and is lightly doped
Operation : A transistor has two junctions namely emitter base junctions and
collector base junction. These two junctions can be biased in four different
ways.
case Emitter base Collector base Region of
junction junction operation
1 Reverse biased Reverse biased Cut off
 2 Forward biased Reverse biased Active
3 Forward biased Forward biased saturation
4 Reverse biased Forward biased Inverse action

For normal operation : the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector
junction is reverse biased . so that the transistor operates in active region. Since
the resistance of a forward biased emitter junction is very small as compared to
the reverse biased collector junction , low forward bias is usually applied to the
emitter junction
Explain transistor biasing and different biasing circuits.
transistor biasing: the process of setting a transistors DC operating voltage or
current conditions to the correct level . The circuit which provides transistor
biasing is called as Biasing Circuit.
Need for DC biasing
If a signal of very small voltage is given to the input of BJT, it cannot be
amplified. Because, for a BJT, to amplify a signal, two conditions have to be met.
 The input voltage should exceed cut-in voltage for the transistor to be ON.
 The BJT should be in the active region, to be operated as an amplifier.
If appropriate DC voltages and currents are given through BJT by external
sources, so that BJT operates in active region and superimpose the AC signals to
be amplified, then this problem can be avoided. The given DC voltage and
currents are so chosen that the transistor remains in active region for entire input
AC cycle. Hence DC biasing is needed.
figure shows a transistor amplifier that is provided with DC biasing on both
input and output circuits.
The biasing in transistor circuits is done by using two DC sources VBB and VCC.
The commonly used methods of transistor biasing are
 Base Resistor method (fixed bias method.)
 Emitter resistor bias
 Biasing with Collector feedback resistor
 Voltage-divider bias
Base Resistor Method(fixed bias method.)
In this method, a resistor RB of high resistance is connected in base, . The required
zero signal base current is provided by V CC which flows through RB. The base
emitter junction is forward biased, as base is positive with respect to emitter. The
required value of zero signal base current and hence the collector current (as IC =
βIB) can be made to flow by selecting the proper value of base resistor RB. Hence
the value of RB is to be known.
Let IC be the required zero signal collector current. Therefore, IB=IC/ β
Considering the closed circuit from VCC, base, emitter and ground, while
applying the Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we get,
VCC=IBRB+VBE re arrange the equation we get
 IBRB=VCC−VBE
Therefore RB=(VCC−VBE) / IB
Since VBE is generally quite small as compared to VCC, the former can be
neglected
RB=VCC / IB
We know that VCC is a fixed known quantity and IB is chosen at some suitable
value. As RB can be found directly, this method is called as fixed bias method.
Advantages
 The circuit is simple.
 Only one resistor RE is required.
 Biasing conditions are set easily.
 No loading effect as no resistor is present at base-emitter junction.
Disadvantages
 The stabilization is poor as heat development can’t be stopped.
 The stability factor is very high. So, there are strong chances of thermal run
away.
Voltage Divider Bias Method
The voltage divider bias method is the most widely used method for
providing biasing and stabilization. Here, two resistors R1 and R2 are in
series, which are connected to VCC and provide biasing. The resistor
RE employed in the emitter provides stabilization.
The name voltage divider comes from the voltage divider formed by R 1 and R2.
The voltage drop across R2 forward biases the base-emitter junction. This
causes the base current and hence collector current flow in the zero signal
conditions. The figure below shows the circuit of voltage divider bias
method. The current flowing through resistance R1 is I1. As base current
IB is very small, therefore, it can be assumed with reasonable accuracy that
current flowing through R2 is also I1.

Collector Current, IC
From the circuit I1=VCC / (R1+R2)
Therefore, the voltage across resistance R2 is V2 = (VCC / (R1+R2)) R2
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the base circuit,
V2=VBE+VE
V2=VBE+IERE
IE= (V2−VBE ) / RE
Since IE ≈ IC,
IC=(V2−VBE) / RE
From the above expression, it is evident that IC doesn’t depend upon β. VBE is
very small that IC doesn’t get affected by VBE at all. Thus IC in this circuit is
almost independent of transistor parameters and hence good stabilization is
achieved.
Collector-Emitter Voltage, VCE
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the collector side,
VCC=ICRC+VCE+IERE
Since IE ≅ IC
=IcRc+VCE+ICRE
=Ic(Rc+RE)+VCE
Therefore,
VCE=VCC−Ic(Rc+RE)
RE provides excellent stabilization in this circuit.
V2=VBE+IcRE
If there is a rise in temperature, then the collector current IC decreases, which
causes the voltage drop across RE to increase. As the voltage drop across R2 is
V2, which is independent of IC, the value of VBE decreases. The reduced value of
IB tends to restore IC to the original value
Advantages : Super stabilization hence it is more popular
load line : When a value for the maximum possible collector current is considered,
that point will be present on the Y-axis, which is nothing but the Saturation
point. As well, when a value for the maximum possible collector emitter voltage
is considered, that point will be present on the X-axis, which is the Cutoff point.
When a line is drawn joining these two points, such a line can be called as Load
line. This is called so as it symbolizes the output at the load. This line, when
drawn over the output characteristic curve, makes contact at a point called
as Operating point or quiescent point or simply Q-point.
The concept of load line can be understood from the following graph.
If this load line is drawn only when DC biasing is given to the transistor, but no
input signal is applied, then such a load line is called as DC load line.
Whereas the load line drawn under the conditions when an input signal along
with the DC voltages are applied, such a line is called as an AC load line.
DC Load Line
When the transistor is given the bias and no signal is applied at its input, the load
line drawn under such conditions, can be understood as DC condition. Here there
will be no amplification as the signal is absent
The value of collector emitter voltage at any given time will be
VCE=VCC−ICRC
As VCC and RC are fixed values, the above one is a first degree equation and
hence will be a straight line on the output characteristics. This line is called
as D.C. Load line
AC Load Line
The AC load line gives the peak-to-peak voltage, or the maximum possible output
swing for a given amplifier.
We shall consider an AC equivalent circuit of a CE amplifier for our
understanding.

VCE=(RC//R1)×IC
rC=RC//R1
For a transistor to operate as an amplifier, it should stay in active region. The
quiescent point is so chosen in such a way that the maximum input signal
excursion is symmetrical on both negative and positive half cycles.
Hence,
Vmax=VCEQ and Vmin= −VCEQ
Where VCEQ is the emitter-collector voltage at quiescent point
The following graph represents the AC load line which is drawn between
saturation and cut off points.
AC and DC Load Line
When AC and DC Load lines are represented in a graph, it can be understood that
they are not identical. Both of these lines intersect at the Q-point or quiescent
point. The endpoints of AC load line are saturation and cut off points. This is
understood from the figure below.

Stabilization
The process of making the operating point independent of temperature changes
or variations in transistor parameters is known as Stabilization.
Need for Stabilization
Stabilization of the operating point has to be achieved due to the following
reasons.
 Temperature dependence of IC
 Individual variations
 Thermal runaway
Temperature Dependence of IC : The collector leakage current ICBO is greatly
influenced by temperature variations. To come out of this, the biasing
conditions are set so that zero signal collector current IC = 1 mA. Therefore, the
operating point needs to be stabilized i.e. it is necessary to keep IC constant.
Individual Variations
As the value of β and the value of VBE are not same for every transistor, whenever
a transistor is replaced, the operating point tends to change. Hence it is necessary
to stabilize the operating point.
Thermal Runaway
The flow of collector current and also the collector leakage current causes heat
dissipation. If the operating point is not stabilized, there occurs a cumulative
effect which increases this heat dissipation.
The self-destruction of such an unstabilized transistor is known as Thermal run
away.
Stability Factor
The rate of change of collector current IC with respect to the collector leakage
current ICO at constant β and IB is called Stability factor.
Amplification : The process of increasing the signal strength is called
as Amplification.
Applications of amplifier
The use of amplifiers in medical devices, scientific equipment, automation,
military tools, communication devices, and even in household
Single Stage CE Amplifier with voltage divider biasing
An electronic circuit is said to be a single-stage amplifier if it consists of a
single transistor with proper bias and additional components based on the
requirement that will provide an output, which is then an amplified version of
any input quantity like the voltage, current, and power.
 In the simple circuit diagram of a single-stage amplifier, we have
considered one Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) and four resistors.
(i) Biasing Circuit
The resistances R1 , R2 and RE provide biasing and stabilisation. The biasing
circuit must establish a proper operating point otherwise a part of the negative
half cycle of the signal may be cut off in the output and you will get faithful
amplification.
Input Capacitor (Cin)
An electrolytic capacitor is used to couple the signal to the base of the transistor.
Otherwise, the signal source resistance will come across R2 and thus can change
the bias.
Emitter Bypass Capacitor (CE)
An emitter bypass capacitor is used in parallel with RE to provide a low reactance
path to the amplified a.c. signal. If this capacitor is not connected in the output
circuit then the amplified a.c. signal will flow through RE and cause a voltage drop
across it, thereby reducing the output voltage
Coupling Capacitor (CC)
The coupling capacitor is used to couple one stage of amplification to the next
stage. the coupling capacitor is used to isolates the DC. of one stage from the next
stage and allows the AC signal only

principle of operation : When a weak a.c. signal is applied to the base of the
transistor, a small base current starts flowing in the input circuit. Due to transistor
action, a much larger (β times the base current) a.c. current flows through the the
load Rc in the output circuit. Since the value of load resistance Rc is very high, a
large voltage will drop across it. Thus, a weak signal applied in the base circuit
appears in amplified form in the collector circuit. In this way the transistor acts
as an amplifier.

Expression for voltage gain, current gain, power gain, input and output
impedances
voltage gain
The voltage gain of a single stage transistor amplifier is the ratio of a.c. output
voltage to a.c. input signal voltage
As far as a.c. signal is concerned, load RC appears in parallel with RL.
Therefore, the effective load resistance for a.c. is given by :
power gain : The ratio of output power to the input power of an amplifier
circuit is called power gain. It shows the capacity of a circuit to amplify power
with respect to the input power.

Current gain (AI) is defined as the ratio of the output current to the input
current of the ampliier
Ai = I out/ I in
frequency response
frequency response of an amplifier is the change in gain or phase shift over a
specified range of input signal frequencies

bandwidth
Bandwidth of a signal is defined as the difference between the highest and the
lowest frequency of a signal.
it is the width of the band in which the signal (electromagnetic waves)
operates. It has the units Hertz
Emitter follower –circuit diagram - features – applications.
Emitter Follower
Emitter follower is a common collector amplifier . It is also known as negative
current feedback circuit.
applications.
This is mostly used as a last stage amplifier in signal generator circuits and for
impedance matching
The important features of Emitter Follower are −
 It has high input impedance
 It has low output impedance
 It is ideal circuit for impedance matching

circuit diagram

Operation
The input signal voltage applied between base and emitter, develops an output
voltage Vo across RE, which is in the emitter section. Therefore, The whole of this
output current is applied to the input through feedback, As the output voltage
developed across RL is proportional to the emitter current, this emitter follower
circuit is a current feedback circuit.
Multi-Stage Transistor Amplifier
In Multi-stage amplifiers, the output of first stage is coupled to the input of next
stage using a coupling device. These coupling devices can usually be a
capacitor or a transformer. This process of joining two amplifier stages using a
coupling device can be called as Cascading.
Purpose of coupling device
 To transfer the AC from the output of one stage to the input of next stage.
 To block the DC to pass from the output of one stage to the input of next
stage, which means to isolate the DC conditions.
Types of Coupling
Resistance-Capacitance Coupling (RC)
Impedance Coupling
Transformer Coupling
Direct Coupling

Two-stage RC Coupled Amplifier

When an AC input signal is applied to the base of first transistor, it gets

amplified and appears at the collector load RL which is then passed through the
coupling capacitor CC to the next stage. This becomes the input of the next
stage, whose amplified output again appears across its collector load. Thus the
signal is amplified in stage by stage action.
Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier
Frequency response curve is a graph that indicates the relationship between
voltage gain and function of frequency. The frequency response of a RC coupled
amplifier is as shown in the following graph.
Advantages of RC Coupled Amplifier
The following are the advantages of RC coupled amplifier.
 The frequency response of RC amplifier provides constant gain over a wide
frequency range, hence most suitable for audio applications.
 The circuit is simple and has lower cost because it employs resistors and
capacitors which are cheap.
 It becomes more compact with the upgrading technology.
Disadvantages of RC Coupled Amplifier
The following are the disadvantages of RC coupled amplifier.
 The voltage and power gain are low because of the effective load resistance.
 They become noisy with age.
 Due to poor impedance matching, power transfer will be low.
Applications of RC Coupled Amplifier
The following are the applications of RC coupled amplifier.
 They have excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of frequency.
 Widely used as Voltage amplifiers
 Due to poor impedance matching, RC coupling is rarely used in the final
stages.
Transformer Coupled Amplifier

When an AC signal is applied to the input of the base of the first transistor then
it gets amplified by the transistor and appears at the collector to which the primary
of the transformer is connected.
The transformer which is used as a coupling device in this circuit has the property
of impedance changing, which means the low resistance of a stage (or load) can
be reflected as a high load resistance to the previous stage. Hence the voltage at
the primary is transferred according to the turns ratio of the secondary winding
of the transformer.
This transformer coupling provides good impedance matching between the stages
of amplifier. The transformer coupled amplifier is generally used for power
amplification.
Frequency Response of Transformer Coupled Amplifier
The figure below shows the frequency response of a transformer coupled
amplifier. The gain of the amplifier is constant only for a small range of
frequencies. The output voltage is equal to the collector current multiplied by the
reactance of primary.
Advantages of Transformer Coupled Amplifier
 An excellent impedance matching is provided.
 Gain achieved is higher.
 There will be no power loss in collector and base resistors.
 Efficient in operation.
Disadvantages of Transformer Coupled Amplifier
 Though the gain is high, it varies considerably with frequency. Hence a
poor frequency response.
 Frequency distortion is higher.
 Transformers tend to produce hum noise.
 Transformers are bulky and costly.
Applications
 Mostly used for impedance matching purposes.
 Used for Power amplification.
 Used in applications where maximum power transfer is needed.
Direct Coupled Amplifier

the coupling of the amplifier stages is done directly and hence called as Direct
coupled amplifier.
Operation
The input signal when applied at the base of transistor T1, it gets amplified due to
the transistor action and the amplified output appears at the collector resistor Rc of
transistor T1. This output is applied to the base of transistor T2 which further
amplifies the signal. In this way, a signal is amplified in a direct coupled amplifier
circuit.
Advantages
The advantages of direct coupled amplifier are as follows.
 The circuit arrangement is simple because of minimum use of resistors.
 The circuit is of low cost because of the absence of expensive coupling
devices.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of direct coupled amplifier are as follows.
 It cannot be used for amplifying high frequencies.
 The operating point is shifted due to temperature variations.
Applications
The applications of direct coupled amplifier are as follows.
 Low frequency amplifications.
 Low current amplifications.
Frequency response of the direct coupled amplifier
The frequency response of the direct coupled amplifier is similar to low pass
filter and hence it is also known as "Low-Pass Amplifier". The amplification of
DC (zero frequency) is possible
only by this amplifier,

To compare the characteristics of different types of coupling

methods
Transformer
S.No Particular RC Coupling Direct Coupling
Coupling

Frequency Excellent in audio

1 Poor Best
response frequency range

2 Cost Less More Least

Space and
3 Less More Least
Weight

Impedance
4 Not good Excellent Good
matching

For amplifying
For voltage For Power
5 Use extremely low
amplification amplification
frequencies