ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,

Soldevanahalli, Bangalore 560107

Department of Mathematics
Subject :Complex analysis, Probability and Statistical methods (21MAT41)
Module -1
Complex analysis, Complex integration &
Conformal transformation

Dept of Mathematics 1
Introduction
We are well acquainted with several concepts associated with a real valued function y= 𝑓(𝑥). We introduce
complex valued function 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) {function of a complex variable z} and discuss some topics associated with it.

Some basic concepts:

A number of the form 𝑧= 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦where 𝑥, 𝑦are real numbers and is

𝑧̅= 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦is called the complex conjugate of z.

called a complex number. is called the real part of z and y is called the imaginary part of z. Also we have

We have,
.

𝑒 = {1 − + − ⋯} + 𝑖{1! − 3! + ⋯ }
𝑖𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥 𝑥3
2! 4!
Dept of Mathematics 2
De-Moivre’s theorem
(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜃, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟.

Geometrical representation of 𝒛= 𝒙+ 𝒊𝒚(Argand diagram)

We plot the point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) in the 𝑥 − 𝑦plane and draw PM perpendicular to the X-axis.

Let 𝑂𝑃= 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑂̂

𝑀= 𝜃. From the above figure we have

𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑦= 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 Dept of Mathematics 3

Eliminating by squaring and adding and r by dividing we get,
 𝑧= 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦= 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
Since is called the polar form of z.
is called the modulus of z and is called the amplitude of z or
argument of z. Symbolically we write these as follows.
and

Properties associated with the modulus and amplitude

1. a) |𝑧1𝑧2| = |𝑧1||𝑧2|
b) 𝑎𝑚𝑝 (𝑧1. 𝑧2) = 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑧1 + 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑧2
2.

b)
3. |𝑧1 + 𝑧2| ≤ |𝑧1| + |𝑧2|
4. 𝑧1 − 𝑧2| ≥ |𝑧1| − |𝑧2|

Neighbourhood: a neighbourhood of a point 𝑧0 in the complex plane is the set of all points z such that |𝑧− 𝑧0|
< 𝛿 where is a small positive real number
Dept of Mathematics 4
Function of a complex variable:
If it is possible to find one or more complex numbers 𝑤 for all value of z in a certain
domain D, we say that 𝑤 is a function of z defined for the domain D. In other words 𝑤 =
𝑓(𝑧) is called a function of the complex variable z. 𝑤 is said to be single valued or many

one value of 𝑤.
valued function of z according as for a given value of z there corresponds one or more than

Since 𝑧= 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦= 𝑟𝑒𝑖𝜃

We always write 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑟, 𝜃) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑟, 𝜃)
[Cartesian form]
[Polar form]

Limit:
A complex valued function 𝑓(𝑧) defined in the neighbourhood of a point 𝑧0 is said to have
a limit l as z tends to 𝑧0, if for every ∈> 0 however small there exists a positive real number
such that | 𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑙| <∈ when | 𝑧− 𝑧0| < 𝛿. This is written as lim 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑙
𝑧→𝑧0

Continuity:
A complex valued function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be continuous at 𝑧= 𝑧0 if 𝑓(𝑧0) exists and
. That is to say that | 𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0)| <∈ when | 𝑧− 𝑧0| < 𝛿.

Dept of Mathematics 5
Differentiability:
A complex valued function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be differentiable at 𝑧= 𝑧0 exists if, lim
𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ −𝑓(𝑧0)
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧−𝑧0
and is unique. This limit when exists is called the derivative of 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑎𝑡 𝑧= 𝑧0 and is denoted
by 𝑓′(𝑧0).
Suppose we consider 𝛿𝑧= 𝑧− 𝑧0, then 𝑧→ 𝑧0 implies that 𝛿𝑧→ 0.
Hence, 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = lim
𝑓ሺ 𝑧0+𝛿𝑍ሻ −𝑓ሺ 𝑧0ሻ
𝛿𝑧→0 𝛿𝑧
Further 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be continuous/differentiable in a domain or a region D if 𝑓(𝑧) is
continuous/differentiable at every point of D.

Analytic Function:
A complex valued function 𝑤= 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be analytic at a point 𝑧= 𝑧0 if
exists and is unique at 𝑧0 and in the neighbourhood of 𝑧0.

Further 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be analytic in a region if it is analytic at every point of the region.

say that 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic at a point 𝑧0 if it is differentiable at 𝑧0 and in the neighbourhood of

Analytic function is also called a regular function or holomorphic function.We can as well

𝑧0. Dept of Mathematics 6

Theorem-1 [Cauchy-Riemann equations in the Cartesian form]
Statement : The necessary conditions that the function 𝑤 = 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑢ሺ 𝑥,𝑦ሻ + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥,𝑦) may be analytic at any
point 𝑧= 𝑥+ 𝑖𝑦 is that , there exists four continuous first order partial derivatives , , ,
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
and satisfy the
= =−
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
equations: and or

𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 and 𝑣𝑥 = − 𝑢𝑦.

These are known as Cauchy –Riemann(C-R) equations.

Proof: Let 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ be analytic at a point 𝑧= 𝑥+ 𝑖𝑦 is and hence by the definition,

𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = lim
𝑓ሺ 𝑧+𝛿𝑧ሻ −𝑓(𝑧)
𝛿𝑧→0 𝛿𝑧
exists and is unique.

In the Cartesian form 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑢ሺ 𝑥,𝑦ሻ + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥,𝑦) and let 𝛿𝑧 be the increment in 𝑧 corresponding to the increments
𝛿𝑥,𝛿𝑦 in 𝑥,𝑦.

𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = lim
𝑢ሺ 𝑥+𝛿𝑥,𝑦+𝛿𝑦ሻ +𝑖𝑣൫ ሺ 𝑥+𝛿𝑥,𝑦+𝛿𝑦ሻ ൯ ൧−ሾ𝑢ሺ 𝑥,𝑦ሻ +𝑖𝑣(𝑥,𝑦)ሿ
ൣ
𝛿𝑧→0 𝛿𝑧

𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = lim + 𝑖 lim
[𝑢ሺ 𝑥+𝛿𝑥,𝑦+𝛿𝑦ሻ −𝑢(ሺ 𝑥,𝑦ሻ ] [𝑣ሺ 𝑥+𝛿𝑥,𝑦+𝛿𝑦ሻ −𝑣(𝑥,𝑦)]
𝛿𝑧→0 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧→0 𝛿𝑧
………………….. (1)

Now 𝛿𝑧= ሺ 𝑧+ 𝛿𝑧ሻ − 𝑧 where 𝑧= 𝑥+ 𝑖𝑦

∴ 𝛿𝑧= ሾሺ 𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥ሻ + 𝑖ሺ 𝑦+ 𝛿𝑦ሻሿ − [𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦] Dept of Mathematics 7

i.e., 𝛿𝑧 = 𝛿𝑥 + 𝑖𝛿𝑦

Since 𝛿𝑧 tends to zero, we have the following two possibilities.

Case(i) : Let 𝛿𝑦 = 0 so that 𝛿𝑧 = 𝛿𝑥 and 𝛿𝑧 → 0 imply 𝛿𝑥 → 0.

Now (1) becomes 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = lim + 𝑖 lim

[𝑢ሺ 𝑥+𝛿𝑥,𝑦ሻ −𝑢ሺ 𝑥,𝑦ሻ ] [𝑣ሺ 𝑥+𝛿𝑥,𝑦ሻ −𝑣(𝑥,𝑦)]
𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

These limits from the basic definition are the partial derivatives of 𝑢 and 𝑣 w.r.t. 𝑥.

∴ 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = +𝑖
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
……………….. (2)

Case (ii) : Let 𝛿𝑥 = 0 so that 𝛿𝑧 = 𝑖𝛿𝑦 and 𝛿𝑧→ 0 imply 𝑖𝛿𝑦 → 0 or 𝛿𝑦 → 0.

Now (1) becomes 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = lim + 𝑖 lim

𝑢ሺ 𝑥,𝑦+𝛿𝑦ሻ −𝑢(ሺ 𝑥,𝑦ሻ 𝑣ሺ 𝑥,𝑦+𝛿𝑦ሻ −𝑣(𝑥,𝑦)
𝛿𝑦→0 𝑖𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑦→0 𝑖𝛿𝑦

1ൗ = 𝑖ൗ = 𝑖
= −𝑖 and hence we have
But 𝑖 𝑖2 −1

𝑢ሺ 𝑥,𝑦+ 𝛿𝑦ሻ − 𝑢ሺ 𝑥,𝑦ሻ 𝑣ሺ 𝑥,𝑦+ 𝛿𝑦ሻ − 𝑣(𝑥,𝑦)

𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = lim − 𝑖. + lim
𝛿𝑦→0 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑦→0 𝛿𝑦

𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = −𝑖 +
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = −𝑖
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

Equating the RHS of (2) & (3) we have,

Dept of Mathematics 8
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
+𝑖 = −𝑖
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

Now equating the real and imaginary parts we get,

= =−
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
and

Thus we have established Cauchy-Riemann equations : 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 and 𝑣𝑥 = − 𝑢𝑦.

Theorem-2 [Cauchy-Riemann equations in the Polar form]

Statement : Let 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑓൫ 𝑟𝑒𝑖𝜃 ൯ = 𝑢ሺ 𝑟,𝜃ሻ + 𝑖𝑣(𝑟,𝜃) is analytic at any point 𝑧 ,then there exists four continuous
, , , = =−
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
first order partial derivatives and satisfy the equations: and

These are known as Cauchy –Riemann(C-R) equations in the polar form.

Proof: Let 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ be analytic at a point 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒𝑖𝜃 and hence by the definition,

𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = lim
𝑓ሺ 𝑧+𝛿𝑧ሻ −𝑓(𝑧)
𝛿𝑧→0 𝛿𝑧
exists and is unique.

In the polar form 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑢ሺ 𝑟,𝜃ሻ + 𝑖𝑣(𝑟,𝜃) and let 𝛿𝑧 be the increment in 𝑧 corresponding to the increments
𝛿𝑟,𝛿𝜃 in r,𝜃.

𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = lim
ሾ𝑢 ሺ 𝑟+𝛿𝑟,𝜃+𝛿𝜃 ሻ +𝑖𝑣(𝑟+𝛿𝑟,𝜃+𝛿𝜃)ሿ−ሾ𝑢 ሺ 𝑟,𝜃ሻ +𝑖𝑣(𝑟,𝜃)ሿ
𝛿𝑧→0 𝛿𝑧

𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = lim + 𝑖 lim
[𝑢ሺ 𝑟+𝛿𝑟,𝜃+𝛿𝜃 ሻ −𝑢(ሺ 𝑟,𝜃ሻ ] [𝑣ሺ 𝑟+𝛿𝑟,𝜃+𝛿𝜃 ሻ −𝑣(𝑟,𝜃)]
𝛿𝑧→0 𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑧→0 𝛿𝑧
…………………….. (1)
Dept of Mathematics 9
Consider 𝑧= 𝑟𝑒𝑖𝜃 .Since 𝑧 is a function of two variables 𝑟,𝜃 we have,

Now 𝛿𝑧 = 𝛿𝑟 + 𝛿𝜃
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃

𝜕 𝜕
∴ 𝛿𝑧 = ൫𝑟𝑒 ൯ 𝛿𝑟 +
𝑖𝜃
(𝑟𝑒𝑖𝜃 )𝛿𝜃
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃
i.e., 𝛿𝑧 = 𝑒𝑖𝜃 𝛿𝑟 + 𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑖𝜃 𝛿𝜃

Since 𝛿𝑧 tends to zero, we have the following two possibilities.

Case(i) : Let 𝛿𝜃 = 0 so that 𝛿𝑧= 𝑒𝑖𝜃 𝛿𝑟 and 𝛿𝑧→ 0 imply 𝛿𝑟 → 0.

Now (1) becomes 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = lim + 𝑖 lim

[𝑢ሺ 𝑟+𝛿𝑟,𝜃ሻ −𝑢ሺ 𝑟,𝜃ሻ ] [𝑣ሺ 𝑟+𝛿𝑟,𝜃ሻ −𝑣(𝑟,𝜃)]
𝛿𝑟→0 𝑒𝑖𝜃 𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝑟→0 𝑒𝑖𝜃 𝛿𝑟

∴ 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑒−𝑖𝜃 [ +𝑖 ]
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
………………… (2)

Case(ii) : Let 𝛿𝑟 = 0 so that 𝛿𝑧= 𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑖𝜃 𝛿𝜃 and 𝛿𝑧 → 0 imply or 𝛿𝜃 → 0.

Now (1) becomes 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = lim + 𝑖 lim

𝑢ሺ 𝑟,𝜃+𝛿𝜃 ሻ −𝑢(ሺ 𝑟,𝜃ሻ 𝑣ሺ 𝑟,𝜃+𝛿𝜃 ሻ −𝑣(𝑟,𝜃)
𝛿𝜃→0 𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑖𝜃 𝛿𝜃 𝛿𝜃→0 𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑖𝜃 𝛿𝜃

𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = lim + 𝑖 lim , 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑖𝜃 ቂ +𝑖 ቃ
1 𝑢ሺ 𝑟,𝜃+𝛿𝜃 ሻ −𝑢ሺ 𝑟,𝜃ሻ 𝑣ሺ 𝑟,𝜃+𝛿𝜃 ሻ −𝑣(𝑟,𝜃) 1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑖𝜃 𝛿𝜃→0 𝛿𝜃 𝛿𝜃→0 𝛿𝜃 𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃

𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑟𝑒𝑖𝜃 ቂ 𝑖 𝜕𝜃 + 𝜕𝜃ቃ
1 1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣

Dept of Mathematics 10
By the definition of partial derivatives of u, v w.r.t we have,
(3)
Comparing equation (2) and (3) we get,
and
Thus we have the Cauchy-Riemann (C-R) equations .

Dept of Mathematics 11
Construction of analytic function 𝒇ሺ 𝒛ሻ given its real or imaginary part.
Working procedure for problems
Given 𝑢 or 𝑣 as functions of 𝑥,𝑦 we find 𝑢𝑥 ,𝑢𝑦 or 𝑣𝑥 ,𝑣𝑦 and consider 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥
Given 𝑢, we use C-R equation 𝑣𝑥 = − 𝑢𝑦 or given 𝑣 we use 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 so that 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑢𝑥 − 𝑖𝑢𝑦 or


𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑣𝑦 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥


We substitute the expression for the partial derivatives in the RHS and then put 𝑥 = 𝑧 ,𝑦= 0 to
obtain 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ as a function of 𝑧.


Integrating w.r.t. 𝑧 we get 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ .

Similarly in the case of polar co-ordinates 𝑟 ,𝜃 we consider.


′ሺ ሻ −𝑖𝜃 ሺ ሻ
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑢𝑟 + 𝑖𝑣𝑟 and use C-R equation in the RHS , 𝑣𝑟 = 𝑢𝜃 given 𝑢 or 𝑢𝑟 = 𝑣𝜃
−1 1
𝑟 𝑟
given 𝑣.
We use the substitution 𝑟 = 𝑧 ,𝜃 = 0 to obtain 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ as a function of 𝑧.
Integrating w.r.t. 𝑧 we get 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ .



This method is known as Milne –Thompson method

Dept of Mathematics 12
1. Construct the analytic function whose real part is 𝑢 = logඥ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

>> 𝑢 = logඥ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑥2 + 𝑦2) = log(𝑥2 + 𝑦2)

1ൗ 1
2
2

∴ 𝑢𝑥 = ∙ ∙2𝑥 =
1 1 𝑥
2 𝑥2+ 𝑦2 𝑥2+ 𝑦2

𝑢𝑦 = ∙ ∙2𝑦=
1 1 𝑦
2 𝑥2+ 𝑦2 𝑥2+ 𝑦2

Consider 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑖𝑢𝑥 But 𝑣𝑥 = − 𝑢𝑦 ( C-R equation.)

𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑢𝑥 − 𝑖𝑢𝑦 = 2−𝑖
𝑥 𝑦
𝑥2+ 𝑦 𝑥2+ 𝑦2
………………….(1)

Putting 𝑥 = 𝑧and 𝑦= 0 we have ,

𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = − 𝑖 ∙0 =
𝑧 1
𝑧2+ 0 𝑧

𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = ‫ 𝑧𝑑 ׬‬+ c
1
𝑧

Thus 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = log𝑧+ 𝑐
Dept of Mathematics 13
2. Find the analytic function 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ whose imaginary part is 𝑒𝑥ሺ 𝑥sin𝑦+ 𝑦cos𝑦ሻ .

>> By data 𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥ሺ 𝑥sin𝑦+ 𝑦cos 𝑦ሻ

∴ 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥 ሺ sin𝑦ሻ + ሺ 𝑥sin𝑦+ 𝑦cos 𝑦ሻ 𝑒𝑥 [By product rule]

𝑣𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥 (sin 𝑦+ 𝑥sin𝑦+ 𝑦cos 𝑦) …………………… (1)

Also 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥 (𝑥cos 𝑦− 𝑦sin𝑦+ cos𝑦) …………………… (2)

Consider 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 But 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑣𝑦 (C –R equation)

i.e., 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑣𝑦 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥

= 𝑒𝑥 (𝑥cos𝑦− 𝑦sin𝑦+ cos 𝑦) + 𝑖 𝑒𝑥 (sin 𝑦+ 𝑥sin𝑦+ 𝑦cos𝑦)

Putting 𝑥 = 𝑧 and 𝑦 = 0 we have ,

𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑒𝑧 (𝑧+ 1) since sin 0 = 0 ,cos 0 = 1

∴ 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = ‫𝑧(׬‬+ 1) 𝑒𝑧 𝑑𝑧+ 𝑐

Integrating by parts,

𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = ሺ 𝑧+ 1ሻ 𝑒𝑧 − ‫∙ 𝑧𝑒 ׬‬1 𝑑𝑧+ 𝑐 = ሺ 𝑧+ 1ሻ 𝑒𝑧 − 𝑒𝑧 + 𝑐

Thus 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑧𝑒𝑧 + 𝑐
Dept of Mathematics 14
 𝑥4 − 𝑦4−2𝑥
𝑥2 +𝑦2
3. Find the analytic function whose real part is .Hence determine v.

>> Here 𝑢 =
𝑥4 − 𝑦4−2𝑥
𝑥2+𝑦2
by data.

𝑢𝑥 =
൫ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2൯ ൫ 4𝑥3−2൯ − (𝑥4 − 𝑦4−2𝑥)2𝑥
(𝑥2+𝑦2 )2

𝑢𝑦 =
൫ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 ൯ (−4𝑦3 ) − (𝑥4 − 𝑦4−2𝑥)2𝑦
(𝑥2 +𝑦2 )2

Consider 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 But 𝑣𝑥 = − 𝑢𝑦 ( C-R equation.)

∴ 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑢𝑥 − 𝑖𝑢𝑦

Putting 𝑥 = 𝑧 and 𝑦 = 0 we have ,

𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = [𝑢𝑥](𝑧,0) − 𝑖 [𝑢𝑦](𝑧,0)

𝑓 𝑧ሻ =
′ሺ
− 𝑖 (0)
𝑧2൫ 4𝑧3−2൯ − ൫ 𝑧4−2𝑧൯ 2𝑧
(𝑧2)2
i.e.,

𝑓 𝑧ሻ =
′ሺ
=
4𝑧5−2𝑧2−2𝑧5+4𝑧2 2𝑧5+2𝑧2
𝑧4 𝑧4

𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 2 4 + 2 = 2𝑧+
𝑧5 𝑧2 2
𝑧 𝑧4 𝑧2

∴ 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = ‫ ׬‬ቀ 2𝑧+ ቁ 𝑑𝑧+ 𝑐 = 𝑧2 − +𝑐

2 2
𝑧2 𝑧

𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑧2 − +𝑐
2
𝑧
Thus
Dept of Mathematics 15
To find 𝑣, we shall separate the RHS of 𝑓ሺ𝑧ሻ in to real and imaginary parts.

𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 − +𝑐
2
𝑥+𝑖𝑦
i.e.,

= ሺ𝑥2 + 𝑖2 𝑦2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦ሻ − +𝑐
2ሺ𝑥−𝑖𝑦ሻ
ሺ𝑥+𝑖𝑦ሻ ሺ𝑥−𝑖𝑦ሻ

= ሺ𝑥2 − 𝑦2ሻ + 2𝑥𝑖𝑦− +𝑐

2ሺ𝑥−𝑖𝑦ሻ
𝑥2+ 𝑦2

= ቀ 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 − ቁ + 𝑖 ቀ 2𝑥𝑦+ ቁ +𝑐
2𝑥 2𝑦
𝑥2+ 𝑦2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

=ቂ ቃ+𝑖 ቂ ቃ+𝑐
𝑥4− 𝑦4 −2𝑥 2𝑥3𝑦+2𝑥𝑦3+2𝑦
𝑥2+ 𝑦2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

Equating the real and imaginary parts we observe that the real part u is same as in the given
problem and the required imaginary part is given by,
𝑣=
2𝑥3𝑦+2𝑥𝑦3 +2𝑦
𝑥2+ 𝑦2

Find the analytic function 𝑓ሺ𝑧ሻ whose real part is

sin 2𝑥
cosh 2𝑦−cos 2𝑥
4. and hence find the imaginary part.

Let 𝑢 =
sin 2𝑥
cosh 2𝑦−cos 2𝑥
>>

𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢𝑦 = −
ሺcosh 2𝑦−cos 2𝑥ሻ ሺ2 cos 2𝑥ሻ−ሺ𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥ሻ (2 sin 2𝑥) sin 2𝑥(2 sinh 2𝑦)
(cosh 2𝑦−cos 2𝑥)2 (cosh 2𝑦−cos 2𝑥)2
,

Consider 𝑓′ ሺ𝑧ሻ = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 − 𝑖𝑢𝑦 by C-R equation.

Putting 𝑥 = 𝑧 and 𝑦 = 0 we have ,

𝑓′ ሺ𝑧ሻ = [𝑢𝑥](𝑧,0) − 𝑖 [𝑢𝑦](𝑧,0)

𝑓′ ሺ𝑧ሻ = − 𝑖 ∙0
ሺ1−cos 2𝑧ሻሺ2 cos 2𝑧ሻ−2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 2𝑧
(1−𝑐𝑜𝑧 2𝑧)2

Dept of Mathematics 16
𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = =
−2(1−cos 2𝑧) −2 −2
(1 −cos 2𝑧)2 (1−cos 2𝑧) 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑧
=

𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝑧

Thus 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = cot 𝑧 + 𝑐

We shall separate cot 𝑧 = cot(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) in to real and imaginary parts to find 𝑣.

Consider 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = cot 𝑧

𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = cot(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) =
cos (𝑥+𝑖𝑦)
sin ⁡(𝑥+𝑖𝑦)
i.e.,

𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 =
cos (𝑥+𝑖𝑦) sin (𝑥+𝑖𝑦)
sin ሺ 𝑥+𝑖𝑦ሻ sin (𝑥−𝑖𝑦)

1
[sin ሺ 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 + 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦ሻ +sin (𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 − 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦)]
= 2
1
[cos ሺ 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦ሻ − cos (
⁡ 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 + 𝑥− 𝑖𝑦)]
2

=
sin 2𝑥 +sin (−2𝑖𝑦)
cos ሺ 2𝑖𝑦ሻ −cos (2𝑥)

=
sin 2𝑥−𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2𝑦
cosh 2𝑦 −cos 2𝑥

= [ ]+𝑖[ ]
sin 2𝑥 − sinh 2𝑦
cosh ሺ 2𝑦ሻ −cos 2𝑥 cos ℎ 2𝑦−cos 2𝑥

Equating the real and imaginary parts we observe that the real part u is same as in the given
problem and the required imaginary part is given by,
𝑣=
− sinh 2𝑦
cos ℎ 2𝑦−cos 2𝑥 Dept of Mathematics 17
 Determine the analytic function 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ whose imaginary part is (r - ) sin 𝜃 , 𝑟 ≠ 0. Hence find
𝑘2
𝑟
5.
the real part of 𝑓(𝑧) and prove it is harmonic.
𝑣 = (r − ) sin 𝜃
𝑘2
𝑟
>> Let
∴ 𝑣𝑟 = ቀ 1 + ቁ sin 𝜃 , 𝑣𝜃 = ቀ 𝑟 − ቁ cos 𝜃
𝑘2 𝑘2
𝑟2 𝑟
𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑒−𝑖𝜃 ሺ 𝑢𝑟 + 𝑖𝑣𝑟ሻ . 𝑢𝑟 = 𝑣𝜃 ( C-R equation)
1
𝑟
Consider But
∴ 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑒−𝑖𝜃 ቀ 𝑣𝜃 + 𝑖𝑣𝑟ቁ
1
𝑟

𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑒−𝑖𝜃 [ቀ 1 − 2 ቁ cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 ቀ 1 + ቁ sin 𝜃]

𝑘2 𝑘2
𝑟 𝑟2
…………………………..(1)

=𝑒 [ሺ cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 ሻ − (cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃)]

−𝑖𝜃 𝑘2
𝑟2

= 𝑒−𝑖𝜃 [𝑒𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒−𝑖𝜃 ]

𝑘2
𝑟2

= 1−
𝑘2
𝑧2

∴ 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = ‫(׬‬1 − 𝑧2 ) 𝑑𝑧+ 𝑐
𝑘2

𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = ቀ 𝑧+ ቁ +𝑐
𝑘2
𝑧
Thus

Now , let us find 𝑢(𝑟,𝜃) from 𝑓(𝑧) by putting 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒𝑖𝜃

𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = (𝑟𝑒𝑖𝜃 ) + = 𝑟ሺ cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃ሻ + (cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃)

𝑘2 𝑘2
𝑟𝑒𝑖𝜃 𝑟
i.e.,
Dept of Mathematics 18
 𝑘2 𝑘2
𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = ቆ 𝑟 + ቇ cos𝜃 + 𝑖 ቆ 𝑟 − ቇ sin𝜃
𝑟 𝑟

Thus the required real part 𝑢 = ቀ 𝑟+ ቁ cos𝜃

𝑘2
𝑟

Next we shall show that 𝑢 is harmonic.

This is to show that 𝑢𝑟𝑟 + 𝑢𝑟 + 𝑢𝜃𝜃 = 0

1 1
𝑟 𝑟2
………………………… (2)

Consider 𝑢 = ቀ 𝑟 + ቁ cos𝜃
𝑘2
𝑟

∴ 𝑢𝑟 = ቀ 1 − ቁ cos𝜃 , 𝑢𝑟𝑟 = cos𝜃

𝑘2 2𝑘2
𝑟2 𝑟3

𝑢𝜃 = − ቀ 𝑟 + ቁ sin𝜃 , 𝑢𝜃𝜃 = − ቀ 𝑟 + ቁ cos𝜃

𝑘2 𝑘2
𝑟 𝑟

LHS of (2) now becomes

cos𝜃 + cos𝜃 − cos𝜃 + cos𝜃 − cos𝜃 = 0

2𝑘2 1 𝑘2 1 𝑘2
𝑟3 𝑟 𝑟3 𝑟 𝑟3

Thus 𝑢 = ቀ 𝑟 + ቁ cos𝜃 is harmonic.

𝑘2
𝑟
Dept of Mathematics 19
Finding the conjugate harmonic function and the analytic function.
We have proved that the real and imaginary parts of an analytic function 𝑓ሺ𝑧ሻ = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣. 𝑢 and 𝑣 are
harmonic .𝑢 and 𝑣 are called conjugate harmonic functions.

1. Determine which of the following function is harmonic.Find the conjugate harmonic function and

express 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 as an analytic function of 𝑧. a) 𝑣 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔ඥ 𝑥 + 𝑦 b) 𝑣 = cos 𝑥 sinh𝑦

𝑣 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔ඥ 𝑥 + 𝑦 = log( 𝑥 + 𝑦)
1
2
>>

𝑣𝑥 = ∙ 𝑥+𝑦 𝑣𝑥𝑥 = ∙
1 1 1 −1
2 2 (𝑥+𝑦)2

𝑣𝑦 = ∙ 𝑣𝑦𝑦 = ∙
1 1 1 −1
2 𝑥+𝑦 2 (𝑥+𝑦)2

∴ 𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦𝑦 = ≠ 0.
−1
(𝑥+𝑦)2

Hence 𝑣 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔ඥ 𝑥 + 𝑦 is not harmonic.

Now consider 𝑣 = cos 𝑥 sinh𝑦

𝑣𝑥 = − sin𝑥 sinh𝑦 𝑣𝑥𝑥 = − cos 𝑥sinh𝑦

𝑣𝑦 = cos 𝑥cosh𝑦 𝑣𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝑥sinh𝑦

𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 0

Thus 𝑣 = cos𝑥 sinh𝑦 is harmonic.

Dept of Mathematics
To find the harmonic conjugate, we consider C-R equations 20
 = =−
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
and

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Substituting for and we have

= cos 𝑥 cosh𝑦 = sin𝑥 sinh𝑦

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
;

⇒ 𝑢 = ‫ ׬‬cos 𝑥cosh𝑦 𝑑𝑥+ 𝑓(𝑦) ; 𝑢 = ‫ ׬‬sin𝑥sinh𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑥)

∴ 𝑢 = sin𝑥 cosh𝑦+ 𝑓(𝑦) ; 𝑢 = sin 𝑥 cosh𝑦+ 𝑔(𝑥)

We have to choose 𝑓ሺ 𝑦ሻ = 0 ,𝑔ሺ 𝑥ሻ = 0 to get a unique expression for 𝑢.

Thus 𝑢 = sin𝑥 cosh𝑦

Also 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

= sin𝑥 cosh𝑦+ 𝑖 cos 𝑥 sinh𝑦

Putting 𝑥 = 𝑧 and 𝑦 = 0 we get

𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = sin𝑧 , since cosh0 = 1 = cos 0 , sinh0 = 0

2 Show that 𝑢 = 𝑥3 − 3𝑥𝑦2 + 3𝑥2 − 3𝑦2 + 1 is harmonic and find its harmonic conjugates. Also find

the corresponding analytic function 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ .

>> Here 𝑢 = 𝑥3 − 3𝑥𝑦2 + 3𝑥2 − 3𝑦2 + 1

Dept of Mathematics 21
𝑢𝑥 = 3𝑥2 − 3𝑦2 + 6𝑥 ; 𝑢𝑥𝑥 = 6𝑥+ 6

𝑢𝑦 = −6𝑥𝑦− 6𝑦 ; 𝑢𝑦𝑦 = −6𝑥− 6

∴ 𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦𝑦 = 6𝑥+ 6 − 6𝑥− 6 = 0 Thus 𝑢 is harmonic.

= =−
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Now consider C-R equations and

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Substituting for and we have,

= 3𝑥2 − 3𝑦2 + 6𝑥 = −ሺ −6𝑥𝑦− 6𝑦ሻ = 6𝑥𝑦+ 6𝑦

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
;

⇒ 𝑣 = ‫(׬‬3𝑥2 − 3𝑦2 + 6𝑥) 𝑑𝑦+ 𝑓(𝑥) ; 𝑣 = ‫(׬‬6𝑥𝑦+ 6𝑦) 𝑑𝑥+ 𝑔(𝑦)

∴ 𝑣 = 3𝑥2𝑦− 𝑦3 + 6𝑥𝑦+ 𝑓(𝑥) ; 𝑣 = 3𝑥2𝑦+ 6𝑥𝑦+ 𝑔(𝑦)

Now we have to properly choose 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑦) to obtain a unique expression for 𝑣.

On comparing we get , 𝑓ሺ 𝑥ሻ = 0 , 𝑔ሺ 𝑦ሻ = − 𝑦3

Thus 𝑣 = 3𝑥2𝑦− 𝑦3 + 6𝑥𝑦

The analytic function is 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

i.e., 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = (𝑥3 − 3𝑥𝑦2 + 3𝑥2 − 3𝑦2 + 1 ) + 𝑖 (3𝑥2𝑦− 𝑦3 + 6𝑥𝑦)

Putting 𝑥 = 𝑧 , 𝑦= 0 the required 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑧3 + 3𝑧2 + 1

Dept of Mathematics 22
 Show that 𝑢 = ቀ 𝑟 + ቁ cos 𝜃 is harmonic. Find its harmonic conjugates and also the corresponding
1
𝑟
3.

analytic function.

𝑢 = ቀ 𝑟 + ቁ cos 𝜃
1
𝑟
>> Here

We shall show that 𝑢𝑟𝑟 + 𝑢𝑟 + 𝑢𝜃𝜃 = 0

1 1
𝑟 𝑟2
……………………………….. (1)

𝑢𝑟 = ቀ 1 − ቁ cos 𝜃 𝑢𝑟𝑟 = cos 𝜃

1 2
𝑟2 𝑟3
;

𝑢𝜃 = − ቀ 𝑟 + ቁ sin 𝜃 𝑢𝜃𝜃 = − ቀ 𝑟 + ቁ cos 𝜃

1 1
𝑟 𝑟
;

LHS of (1) now becomes,

2 1 1 1 1
cos 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 = 0
𝑟3 𝑟 𝑟3 𝑟 𝑟3
Thus the given 𝑢 is harmonic.

To find 𝑣, let us consider C-R equation in the polar form

𝑟 𝑢𝑟 = 𝑣𝜃 ; 𝑟 𝑣𝑟 = −𝑢𝜃

𝑣𝜃 = ቀ 𝑟 − ቁ cos 𝜃 𝑣𝑟 = ቀ1+ ቁ sin 𝜃

1 1
𝑟 𝑟2
i.e., ;

⇒ 𝑣= ‫׬‬ቀ 𝑟− ቁ cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + 𝑓(𝑟) 𝑣= ‫׬‬ቀ 1 + ቁ sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟 + 𝑔(𝜃)

1 1
𝑟 𝑟2
;

𝑣 = ቀ 𝑟 − ቁ sin 𝜃 + 𝑓(𝑟) 𝑣 = ቀ𝑟− ቁ sin 𝜃 + 𝑔(𝜃)

1 1
𝑟 𝑟
i.e., ;

On comparing we must have 𝑓ሺ𝑟ሻ = 0 and 𝑔(𝜃) = 0

Thus the required harmonic conjugate 𝑣 = ቀ 𝑟 − 𝑟ቁ sin𝜃

1

Dept of Mathematics 23
Also we have 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

𝑓ሺ𝑧ሻ = ቀ 𝑟 + ቁ cos 𝜃 + i ቀ 𝑟 − ቁ sin 𝜃

1 1
𝑟 𝑟
i.e.,

= 𝑟ሺcos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃ሻ + (cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃)

1
𝑟

= 𝑟𝑒𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒−𝑖𝜃 = 𝑟 𝑒𝑖𝜃 + = 𝑧+

1 1 1
𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑖𝜃 𝑧

Thus 𝑓ሺ𝑧ሻ = 𝑧+
1
𝑧
is analytic function.

Miscellaneous problems
1. Find the analytic function 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 given 𝑢 − 𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥(cos 𝑦− sin 𝑦)

>> 𝑢 − 𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥(cos 𝑦− sin 𝑦)

We shall differentiate w.r.t. 𝑥 and 𝑦 partially

𝑢𝑥 − 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥 (cos 𝑦− sin 𝑦) …………………………………(1)

and 𝑢𝑦 − 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥 (− sin 𝑦− cos 𝑦)

Using C-R equation for the LHS of this equation in the form 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 and 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑥 we have,

−𝑣𝑥 − 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥(− sin 𝑦− cos 𝑦)

Or 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥(sin 𝑦+ cos 𝑦) ………………………………… (2)

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Let us solve (1) & (2) simultaneously for 𝑢𝑥 and 𝑣𝑥

(1) + (2) : 2𝑢𝑥 = 2𝑒𝑥 cos 𝑦 ∴ 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥 cos𝑦

ሺ 1ሻ − ሺ 2ሻ ∶ −2𝑣𝑥 = −2𝑒𝑥 sin𝑦 ∴ 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥 sin𝑦

We have 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑒𝑥 cos 𝑦+ 𝑖 𝑒𝑥 sin 𝑦

= 𝑒𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin𝑦)

= 𝑒𝑥 ∙ 𝑒𝑖𝑦

= 𝑒𝑥+𝑖𝑦

= 𝑒𝑧

2. Find the analytic function 𝑓(𝑧) as a function of 𝑧 given that the sum of its real and imaginary parts Is

𝑥3 − 𝑦3 + 3𝑥𝑦(𝑥− 𝑦).

>> Let 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 be the analytic function and we have by data ,

𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑥3 − 𝑦3 + 3𝑥𝑦(𝑥 − 𝑦)

Differentiating w.r.t. 𝑥 and 𝑦 partially w.r.t. we have,

𝑢𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥 = 3𝑥2 + 6𝑥𝑦− 3𝑦2 ………………………… (1) -

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 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑣𝑦 = −3𝑦2 + 3𝑥2 − 6𝑥𝑦

Using C-R equation for the LHS of this equation in the form 𝑢𝑦 = −𝑣𝑥 and 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑥 we have

−𝑣𝑥 + 𝑢𝑥 = −3𝑦2 + 3𝑥2 − 6𝑥𝑦 ………………………… (2)

Now ሺ 1ሻ + ሺ 2ሻ gives , 2𝑢𝑥 = 6 𝑥2 − 6𝑦2 ∴ 𝑢𝑥 = 3𝑥2 − 3𝑦2

ሺ 1ሻ − ሺ 2ሻ gives , 2𝑣𝑥 = 12𝑥𝑦 ∴ 𝑣𝑥 = 6𝑥𝑦

Consider 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑣𝑥 = ሺ 3𝑥2 − 3𝑦2 ሻ + 𝑖(6𝑥𝑦)

= 3(𝑥2 − 𝑦2 + 2𝑖𝑥𝑦)

= 3( 𝑥+ 𝑖𝑦)2

= 3𝑧2
∴ 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = ‫ ׬‬3𝑧2 𝑑𝑧+ 𝑐

Thus 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑧3 + 𝑐

If 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ is analytic , show that [ + 𝜕𝑦2 ] | 𝑓(𝑧)| 2 = 4 | 𝑓′ (𝑧)| 2

𝜕2 𝜕2
𝜕𝑥2
3.

>> Let 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 be analytic.

∴ ȁ𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻȁ= ξ𝑢2 + 𝑣2 or | 𝑓(𝑧)| 2 = 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 = ∅ (say)

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To prove that ቂ 2 + ቃ ∅ = 4 | 𝑓′ (𝑧)| 2
𝜕2 𝜕2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦2

That is to prove that ∅𝑥𝑥 + ∅𝑦𝑦 = 4 | 𝑓′ (𝑧)| 2

Consider ∅ = 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 and differentiate w.r.t. 𝑥 partially.

∴ ∅𝑥 = 2𝑢𝑢𝑥 + 2𝑣𝑣𝑥 = 2[ 𝑢𝑢𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑥 ]

Differentiating w.r.t. 𝑥 again we get

∅𝑥𝑥 = 2[𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥2] ……………………….. (1)

Similarly we can also get

∅𝑦𝑦 = 2[𝑢𝑢𝑦𝑦 + 𝑢𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 + 𝑣𝑦2] ……………………….. (2)

Adding (1) & (2) we have

∅𝑥𝑥 + ∅𝑦𝑦 = 2[𝑢 ൫𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦𝑦 ൯ + 𝑣൫𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦𝑦൯ + 𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑢𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑦2] ……………………….. (3)

Since 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic , 𝑢 and 𝑣 are harmonic.

Hence 𝑢𝑥𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦𝑦 = 0 , 𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 0 .

Further we also have C-R equations :

𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑥 , 𝑢𝑦 = − 𝑣𝑥
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∅𝑥𝑥 + ∅𝑦𝑦 = 2[𝑢 ∙0 + 𝑣 ∙0 + 𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑥2 + ሺ −𝑣𝑥ሻ 2 + (𝑢𝑥)2
Using these results in the RHS of (3) we have,

∅𝑥𝑥 + ∅𝑦𝑦 = 2ሾ𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑥2 ሿ = 4 [𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑥2]

But 𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 …………………………… (4)
∴ ȁ𝑓′ ሺ 𝑧ሻȁ= ඥ 𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑥2 or | 𝑓′ (𝑧)| 2 = 𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑥2
Using this in the RHS of (4) we have ∅𝑥𝑥 + ∅𝑦𝑦 = 4 | 𝑓′ (𝑧)| 2

This proves the required result.

4. If 𝑓(𝑧) is a regular function of 𝑧 show that {𝜕𝑥 | 𝑓(𝑧)| }2 + {𝜕𝑦 | 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ | }2 = | 𝑓′ (𝑧)| 2

𝜕 𝜕

>> Let 𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻ = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 be the regular (analytic) function.

ȁ𝑓ሺ 𝑧ሻȁ= ξ𝑢2 + 𝑣2 = ∅ (say)

We have to prove that ( ) + ( ) = | 𝑓′ (𝑧)| 2

𝜕∅ 2 𝜕∅ 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

This is to prove that ∅𝑥2 + ∅𝑦2 = | 𝑓′ (𝑧)| 2 where ∅ = ξ𝑢2 + 𝑣2

Consider ∅2 = 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 (Squaring ∅ for convenience)

Differentiating w.r.t. 𝑥 partially we ge

2∅∅𝑥 = 2𝑢𝑢𝑥 + 2𝑣𝑣𝑥 and dividing by 2 we have,

∅∅𝑥 = 𝑢𝑢𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑥 ………………………….. (1)

Dept of Mathematics 28
Similarly we can also get,

∅∅𝑦 = 𝑢𝑢𝑦 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦 …………………………. (2)

Squaring and adding (1) & (2) we get,

∅2൫ ∅𝑥2 + ∅𝑦2൯ = (𝑢 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑥)2 + (𝑢 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦)2

= ሺ𝑢2𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣2𝑣𝑥2 + 2𝑢𝑣𝑢𝑥𝑣𝑥ሻ + (𝑢2𝑢𝑦2 + 𝑣2𝑣𝑦2 + 2𝑢𝑣𝑢𝑦𝑣𝑦 )

Since 𝑓ሺ𝑧ሻ = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 is analytic, we have C-R equations : 𝑢𝑦 = − 𝑣𝑥 and 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑥

By using these in the second bracket of the RHS we have,

∅2൫ ∅𝑥2 + ∅𝑦2൯ = ሺ𝑢2𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣2 𝑣𝑥2 + 2𝑢𝑣𝑢𝑥𝑣𝑥ሻ + ሺ𝑢2𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣2𝑢𝑥2 + 2𝑢𝑣𝑢𝑥𝑣𝑥 ሻ

= 𝑢2ሺ𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑥2ሻ + 𝑣2(𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑥2)

= ሺ𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑥2ሻ(𝑢2 + 𝑣2)

But ∅2 = 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 and using this in the RHS we have,

∅2൫ ∅𝑥2 + ∅𝑦2൯ = ∅2 (𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑥2)

Or ∅𝑥2 + ∅𝑦2 = 𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑥2

But 𝑓′ ሺ𝑧ሻ = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 ……………………….. (3)

∴ ȁ𝑓′ ሺ𝑧ሻȁ= ඥ 𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑥2 or | 𝑓′ (𝑧)| 2 = 𝑢𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑥2

Using this in the RHS of (3) we get ∅𝑥2 + ∅𝑦2 = | 𝑓′ (𝑧)| 2

This proves the required result.

Dept of Mathematics 29
 Complex integration

Complex line integral:

Consider a continuous function of the complex variable defined at all points of a curve
C extending from P to Q. Divide the curve C into n parts by arbitrarily taking points P=
P(z0), P1(z1), P2(z2), ----,Pk-1(zk-1), Pk(zk), Pk+1(zk+1),----, Pn(zn)=Q on the curve C. Let be

any point on the arc of the curve from Pk-1 to Pk and let

Dept of Mathematics 30
Then where is defined as the complex line integral along the path C usually denoted
by

If C is a simple closed curve the notation is also used.

Properties of complex integral:

(i) If C denotes the curve traversed from Q to P then

(ii) If C is split into a number of parts then

❑ ❑ ❑ ❑

∫ 𝑓 ( 𝑧 ) 𝑑𝑧=∫ 𝑓 ( 𝑧 ) 𝑑𝑧 +∫ 𝑓 ( 𝑧 ) 𝑑𝑧+∫ 𝑓 ( 𝑧 ) 𝑑𝑧 +…
𝑐 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
Dept of Mathematics 31
(iii) If a and b are constants then ,

Line integral of a complex valued function:

Let be a complex valued function defined over a region R and C be a curve in

the region. Then

i.e.

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This shows that the evaluation of a line integral of a complex valued function is nothing but the evaluation
of line integrals of real valued functions.

PROBLEMS

1. Evaluate i) along the straight line from

ii) along the curve made up of two line segments, one from and another from .

Solution:

i)
Here z varies from 0 to 3+i means that varies from . The equation of the line joining is given by

Dept of Mathematics 33
 Y

𝑦 −0 1− 0 𝑥
= 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 =
𝑥−0 3 −0 3 B(3+i)

X
O

Further

We have and we shall convert these integrals into the variable y and integrate w.r.t. y from 0
to 1.

Dept of Mathematics 34
 Thus along the given path

ii)Segments from and then from means that varies from as shown in the following figure.

Dept of Mathematics 35
 Y

B(3,1) …….. (1)

X
O

Now along .

Also along .

Therefore equation (1) becomes,

Dept of Mathematics 36
.

2. Evaluate where C is a square with the following vertices .

Solution:
The curve C as shown in the following figure.

Dept of Mathematics 37
 ...(1)

We have

Along OP():

Along PQ():

Along QR():

Along RO(): .

Using these in (1) we obtain

Dept of Mathematics 38
3. Evaluate along the following paths.
a) the parabola
b) the straight line from

Solution:

a) x varies from 0 to 2 and hence

Dept of Mathematics 39
b) Equation of the straight line joining is given by

Now

Dept of Mathematics 40
Cauchy’s theorem

Statement: if is analytic at all points inside and on a simple closed curve C then .

Proof:

Let then

...(1)

We have green’s theorem in a plane stating that if are two real valued functions having continuous first order
partial derivatives in a region R bounded by the curve C then

∫ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 =∬ ( )
❑ ❑
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
− 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑐 𝑅
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Dept of Mathematics 41
applying this theorem to the two line integrals in the RHS of (1) we obtain,

Since is analytical, we have Cauchy-Riemann equations:

and hence we have,

Consequences of Cauchy’s theorem

1. Statement: If is analytic in a region R and if P and Q are any two points in it then is independent of the
path joining P and Q. That is is same for all curves joining P and Q.

Dept of Mathematics 42
Proof:

Let and be two simple curves joining P and Q such that both the curves lie in the region R. Then their union
PAQBP as in the following figure below becomes a simple closed curve C in the region R.

Now by Cauchy’s theorem

i.e.

i.e.

i.e.

that implies

Dept of Mathematics 43
2. Statement: if , are two simple closed curves such that lies entirely within and if is analytic on and in the
region bounded by ( known as angular region) then,
.
Proof:

Let us introduce a cross cut in the form of a line segment PQ with the point P on and Q on . Then the curve
PRSPQUQP as shown in the figure is a simple closed curve and is analytic inside and on the boundary of C.

Hence by Cauchy’s theorem

Since C is the union of the arcs PRSP, PQ, QUQ and QP, the theorem becomes

Dept of Mathematics 44
 i.e.

i.e.

that implies

Cauchy’s Integral Formula

If is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C and if ‘a’ is any point within C then ,

Proof:

Since ‘a’ is a point within C, we shall enclose it by a circle with as centre and r as radius such that lies entirely
within C.

Dept of Mathematics 45
The function is analytic inside and on the boundary of the
annular region between C and .

Now, as a consequence of Cauchy’s theorem,

....(1)

The equation of ( circle with centre a and radius r ) can be written in the form i.e.

Using these in the RHS of (1) we have,

Dept of Mathematics 46
This is true for any however small. Hence as we get,

Thus

Generalized Cauchy’s Integral Formula

If is analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C and if ‘a’ is any point within C then ,

Proof: We have Cauchy’s integral formula,

Applying Leibnitz rule for differentiation under the integral sign we have,

Dept of Mathematics 47
Applying Leibnitz rule once again we get,

Continue this process n times we get,

Dept of Mathematics 48
Problems:

1. Verify Cauchy’s theorem for the function where C is the square having vertices .

Solution:

C is the square OABC and we have by Cauchy’s theorem .

Therefore, we have to show that,

Along OA,

Dept of Mathematics 49
Along AB,

Along BC,

Along CO,

Dept of Mathematics 50
2. Verify Cauchy’s theorem for the function over the unit circle with origin as the centre.
Solution : We have to evaluate ,where C is the circle

Dept of Mathematics 51
 Hence the theorem verified.
3. Evaluate over each of the following contours C: a) b) c)

Solution:

We have to evaluate the integral which can be written in the form which is of the form

Here

Dept of Mathematics 52
a) is a circle with centre origin and radius .

The point is the point lies within the circle .

We have Cauchy’s integral formula

We have

Thus

Dept of Mathematics 53
b) is a circle with centre origin and radius .

The point lies outside the circle and is analytic inside and on the circle .

We have by Cauchy’s theorem

c) is a circle with centre at z=a=1 and radius 1 .

The point lies outside the circle and is analytic inside and on the circle . We have by Cauchy’s
theorem

Dept of Mathematics 54
4. Evaluate over the curves : a) b)

Solution : Consider,

Hence

And hence by Cauchy’s theorem where

Dept of Mathematics 55
b) This is a circle with centre (-2,0) and radius 1
We have
The point a=2 lies outside the circle and the point a=-2 lies inside the circle
Cauchy’s theorem and by Cauchy’s Integral formula

Substituting these in RHS of (1) we get

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5. Evaluate
Solution : The circle
Let is analytic everywhere except at z=1 and z=2 . These points are inside the circle c.
Consider ( by partial fractions )

Dept of Mathematics 57
6. Evaluate where c is the circle
Solution : Here
a) Here

b) , in this case a=1 lies outside the circle

So is analytic everywhere within c.

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7. Evaluate where c is the circle
Solution : Here both a=-1 and a=2 , both inside the circle
Resolving into partial fractions

…………………(1)
Put
Put
Hence

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And

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Dept of Mathematics 61