Oleg Benesch
University of York, History, Faculty Member
- Korean Studies, Bushido 武士道, Invented Traditions, Ideology, Comparative Civilizations, Chinese Philosophy, and 26 moreJapanese Philosophy, Japanese History, China, Japanese Studies, Showa period 昭和時代, The way of the samurai, the way of the warrior, Yamaga Soko 山鹿素行, 比較文明学, Modern Chinese History, Inoue Tetsujiro 井上哲次郎, Meiji period 明治時代, Yoshida Shoin 吉田松陰, Taisho period 大正時代, Nitobe Inazo 新渡戸稲造, Militarism and militarization, Nogi Maresuke 乃木希典, Wang Yangming 王陽明 (Yomeigaku 陽明学), History, History of the Samurai, Samurai history, Colonialism, Imperialism, Empire, Nationalism, National Identity, and Modern Japanese Historyedit
- http://www.olegbenesch.com/
http://www.york.ac.uk/history/staff/profiles/benesch/edit
Co-edited with Judith Vitale and Miriam Kingsberg Kadia
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Inventing the Way of the Samurai examines the development of the 'way of the samurai' - bushidō - which is popularly viewed as a defining element of the Japanese national character and even the 'soul of Japan'. Rather than a continuation... more
Inventing the Way of the Samurai examines the development of the 'way of the samurai' - bushidō - which is popularly viewed as a defining element of the Japanese national character and even the 'soul of Japan'. Rather than a continuation of ancient traditions, however, bushidō developed from a search for identity during Japan's modernization in the late nineteenth century. The former samurai class were widely viewed as a relic of a bygone age in the 1880s, and the first significant discussions of bushidō at the end of the decade were strongly influenced by contemporary European ideals of gentlemen and chivalry. At the same time, Japanese thinkers increasingly looked to their own traditions in search of sources of national identity, and this process accelerated as national confidence grew with military victories over China and Russia.
Inventing the Way of the Samurai considers the people, events, and writings that drove the rapid growth of bushidō, which came to emphasize martial virtues and absolute loyalty to the emperor. In the early twentieth century, bushidō became a core subject in civilian and military education, and was a key ideological pillar supporting the imperial state until its collapse in 1945. The close identification of bushidō with Japanese militarism meant that it was rejected immediately after the war, but different interpretations of bushidō were soon revived by both Japanese and foreign commentators seeking to explain Japan's past, present, and future. This volume further explores the factors behind the resurgence of bushidō, which has proven resilient through 130 years of dramatic social, political, and cultural change.
Inventing the Way of the Samurai considers the people, events, and writings that drove the rapid growth of bushidō, which came to emphasize martial virtues and absolute loyalty to the emperor. In the early twentieth century, bushidō became a core subject in civilian and military education, and was a key ideological pillar supporting the imperial state until its collapse in 1945. The close identification of bushidō with Japanese militarism meant that it was rejected immediately after the war, but different interpretations of bushidō were soon revived by both Japanese and foreign commentators seeking to explain Japan's past, present, and future. This volume further explores the factors behind the resurgence of bushidō, which has proven resilient through 130 years of dramatic social, political, and cultural change.
Research Interests: Buddhism, History, Cultural History, Asian Studies, Japanese Studies, and 25 moreJapanese Philosophy, Martial Arts, Identity (Culture), Ideology, Nationalism, Japanese History, Shinto Studies, History of concepts, Zen Buddhism, East Asian Studies, Masculinity, National Identity, Second World War, Masculinities, Social History, Japan, Russo-Japanese War, Internationalism, Confucianism, Samurai films, History of the Samurai, Yukio Mishima, Bushido 武士道, The way of the samurai, the way of the warrior, and Sino-Japanese relations
Co-authored with Judith Vitale and Miriam Kingsberg Kadia
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This chapter explores that the crusades were a significant concept in the social, religious, and cultural dynamics of the Meiji and Taisho periods, and influenced Japan's evolving relationship with the rest of the world. It further... more
This chapter explores that the crusades were a significant concept in the social, religious, and cultural dynamics of the Meiji and Taisho periods, and influenced Japan's evolving relationship with the rest of the world. It further explores that consideration of the crusades in Japan should be seen as part of a response to, and participation in, a larger global medievalist moment that reached virtually all societies in some form in the decades before the First World War. The chapter focuses on the period from the broad dissemination of the concept of the crusades in Japan in the 1870s to the relative decline of the universal European medievalist model around the time of the First World War. It discusses Japan's engagement called the ‘global medievalist moment’ that began in the late nineteenth century, and considers how European models were entangled with the rediscovery and rehabilitation of Japan's historic samurai warriors.
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One of the longest-standing debates in the martial arts relates to their being either ‘sports’ or methods of self-cultivation. Traditionalists often ascribe unique spiritual characteristics to the martial arts, while criticising the... more
One of the longest-standing debates in the martial arts relates to their being either ‘sports’ or methods of self-cultivation. Traditionalists often ascribe unique spiritual characteristics to the martial arts, while criticising the ‘sportification’ of certain practices. In this view, the martial arts are seen to have declined from ancient ideals and become focused on ‘superficial’ competition and techniques. This paper argues that the supposedly intrinsic connection between martial arts and mental self-cultivation is largely a product of the last 150 years, and developed from the historical context of Japan’s modernisation in the late nineteenth century, as martial arts were codified while experiencing a powerful challenge from the arrival of Western sports. This dynamic was closely related to the development of the nationalistic ideology of bushido, the ‘way of the samurai’, which was frequently invoked by promoters of the martial arts. In this context, intangible elements such as ‘spirit’ were used by martial artists to include and exclude people along lines of gender, nationality, and ethnicity. This paper uses three Tokyo Olympics, 2020, 1964, and the cancelled 1940 games, to examine how the Japanese martial arts were ‘spiritualised’, and to consider the enduring legacy of imperial ideologies.
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On October 31, 2019, a massive fire tore through the UNESCO World Heritage site of Shuri Castle in Okinawa, sparking a global reaction and comparisons with another World Heritage site. As in the case of Notre Dame, government officials... more
On October 31, 2019, a massive fire tore through the UNESCO World Heritage site of Shuri Castle in Okinawa, sparking a global reaction and comparisons with another World Heritage site. As in the case of Notre Dame, government officials immedicately declared their intention to rebuild, and donations flooded in from Okinawa, throughout Japan, and other countries. Shuri Castle is widely recognized as the symbol of the former Ryukyu kingdom. This article shows that the significance of Shuri Castle can only be fully understood by examining it in the context of castles in modern Japan. By understanding the commonalities and differences between Shuri Castle and mainland castles, we use the site as a tool to examine Okinawa's modern history. In spite of Shuri Castle's early origins and architecture differing somewhat from mainland Japanese castles, it was treated similarly to these other sites in the modern period. Like hundreds of other castles, Shuri Castle was taken over by the central government in the early Meiji period (1868-1912). Like dozens of other castles, Shuri Castle eventually became a garrison for the modern military. Like the castles at Nagoya, Hiroshima, Wakayama, Okayama, Ogaki, and Fukuyama, it was destroyed by US bombs in 1945. Like many other castles, it was demilitarized under the US Occupation and came to host cultural and educational facilities. The reconstruction of Shuri Castle from wood using traditional techniques in 1992 echoed similar projects at Kanazawa, Kakegawa, and Ōzu, as well as dozens of planned reconstructions. For many regions in Japan, castles have played a similar role to Shuri Castle, serving at times as symbols of connection to the nation, and at times as symbols of a local identity opposed to the often oppressive power of the central state. Examining the modern history of Shuri Castle as a Japanese castle can further complicate our understandings of the complex dynamics of Okinawa's relationship with Japan over the past 150 years.
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Castles are some of Japan's most iconic structures and popular tourist destinations. They are prominent symbols of local, regional and national identity recognised both at home and abroad. Castles occupy large areas of land at the centre... more
Castles are some of Japan's most iconic structures and popular tourist destinations. They are prominent symbols of local, regional and national identity recognised both at home and abroad. Castles occupy large areas of land at the centre of most Japanese cities, shaping the urban space. Many castles have their roots in the period of civil war that ended in the early seventeenth century, and now house museums, parks and reconstructions of historic buildings. The current heritage status of Japan's castles obscures their troubled modern history. During the imperial period (1868–1945), the vast majority of pre-modern castles were abandoned, dismantled or destroyed before being rediscovered and reinvented as physical links to an idealised martial past. Japan's most important castles were converted to host military garrisons that dominated city centres and caused conflict with civilian groups. Various interests competed for control and access, and castles became sites of convergence between civilian and military agendas in the 1920s and 1930s. This paper argues that castles contributed both symbolically and physically to the militarisation of Japanese society in the imperial period. The study of these unique urban spaces provides new approaches to understanding militarism, continuity and change in modern Japan.
Research Interests: History, Military History, Japanese Studies, Cultural Heritage, Nationalism, and 14 moreHeritage Conservation, Second World War, World War II, Japan, Cultural Heritage Management, Civil-military relations, Meiji Japan, Second World War (History), Military, Castles, Castle Studies, Taisho period 大正時代, Showa period 昭和時代, and Osaka
The characterization of Japan as a martial country, as opposed to a China that emphasizes civil virtues, has colored views of the two societies for centuries. This was reinforced by apparent differences in their traditional governments,... more
The characterization of Japan as a martial country, as opposed to a China that emphasizes civil virtues, has colored views of the two societies for centuries. This was reinforced by apparent differences in their traditional governments, with Japan ruled by warriors while China was marked by a scholarly examination system. The underlying conception of a martial Japan was carried into the modern age, where it flowed into the emerging discourse on bushido, or “the way of the warrior,” which began to be popularized around the time of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95. Rather than a continuation of an ancient tradition or a manifestation of a “national character,” however, bushido is largely a modern invention, interpretations of which have tended to primarily reflect the conditions under which they were formulated. The samurai spirit has at times been credited for Japan’s economic success and technological progress, but also associated with militaristic imperialism.
In China, bushido, or wushidao, has played an important role in shaping views of Japan from the late nineteenth century onward, as the period of bushido’s greatest growth and popularization coincided with an unprecedented influx of Chinese students, reformers, and exiles to Japan. Chinese intellectuals credited bushido with driving the Meiji Restoration and subsequent reforms, while students at Japanese civilian and military schools were exposed to the pervasive bushido ideology. As relations between Japan and China worsened, attitudes towards wushidao became increasingly negative, although there remained a significant diversity among interpretations. Discourse on the subject declined in both Japan and China after 1945, but was revived in Japan in different forms relatively soon after the war. In China, interest in wushidao began to grow in the 1980s, and recent diplomatic tensions contributed to a tremendous increase in Chinese studies of the subject over the last two decades. Wushidao is often put forth as a possible explanation for supposedly “traditional” Japanese militarism, and is one of the most common themes in Chinese cultural and historical studies of Japan. By placing its examination of Chinese views into the broader historical context of bushido discourses in Japan and other countries, this study considers their influence and implications for reconciliation and inter-cultural relations.
In China, bushido, or wushidao, has played an important role in shaping views of Japan from the late nineteenth century onward, as the period of bushido’s greatest growth and popularization coincided with an unprecedented influx of Chinese students, reformers, and exiles to Japan. Chinese intellectuals credited bushido with driving the Meiji Restoration and subsequent reforms, while students at Japanese civilian and military schools were exposed to the pervasive bushido ideology. As relations between Japan and China worsened, attitudes towards wushidao became increasingly negative, although there remained a significant diversity among interpretations. Discourse on the subject declined in both Japan and China after 1945, but was revived in Japan in different forms relatively soon after the war. In China, interest in wushidao began to grow in the 1980s, and recent diplomatic tensions contributed to a tremendous increase in Chinese studies of the subject over the last two decades. Wushidao is often put forth as a possible explanation for supposedly “traditional” Japanese militarism, and is one of the most common themes in Chinese cultural and historical studies of Japan. By placing its examination of Chinese views into the broader historical context of bushido discourses in Japan and other countries, this study considers their influence and implications for reconciliation and inter-cultural relations.
Research Interests: History, Military History, Intellectual History, Japanese Studies, Chinese Philosophy, and 18 moreJapanese Philosophy, Chinese Studies, War Studies, Identity (Culture), Ideology, Nationalism, Japanese History, Modern and Contemporary Japan, History of concepts, National Identity, China, Sino-Japanese War, Chinese history (History), Invented Traditions, History of the Samurai, Bushido 武士道, Wang Yangming 王陽明 (Yomeigaku 陽明学), and Sino-Japanese relations
Research Interests: Religion, Comparative Religion, History, Military History, Japanese Studies, and 25 moreHistory of Religion, Japanese Language And Culture, Japanese Religions, Sports History, Martial Arts, Militarism, Ideology, Nationalism, Japanese History, World History, Modern and Contemporary Japan, Japanese Buddhism, Zen Buddhism, National Identity, Japan, Japanese Culture, Japanese Popular Culture, Japanese History - Meiji era, Meiji Japan, Martial Arts (Anthropology), Invented Traditions, Sport, History of the Samurai, Bushido 武士道, and Chan/Zen Buddhism
Abstract The binary of martial and civil virtues (wen-wu) is one of the oldest and most pervasive concepts in East Asian thought. This paper examines the transmission of Chinese wen-wu thought to Japan, and its subsequent independent... more
Abstract
The binary of martial and civil virtues (wen-wu) is one of the oldest and most pervasive concepts in East Asian thought. This paper examines the transmission of Chinese wen-wu thought to Japan, and its subsequent independent development in that country. Whereas in China and Korea, primacy has traditionally been given to civil virtues over martial ones, the unique warrior-centered social and governmental structure that developed in Japan led its thinkers to more strongly emphasize the martial. As a result, at least in the context of wen-wu, many Japanese were willing to accept, rather than invert, the China/barbarian binary that marked continental interpretations. In comparison, many Japanese Confucians and related schools of thought had otherwise tended to revise ideas imported from China in ways that removed them from their source and relocated the moral center to Japan. The identification of Japan as the “martial country” and China/Korea as the “civil countries” came to be broadly accepted by intellectuals in all three societies. At the same time, the exact nature of Japanese “martiality” varied greatly among different thinkers, often to the extent that definitions of the concept could be polar opposites. This paper argues that it was this vagueness and flexibility of the wen-wu binary that ensured its continued prominence as the concepts were adapted to new situations, and further led to movements by Chinese and Korean thinkers to introduce Japanese martiality into their own nations around the turn of the twentieth century. In this process, Japanese bun-bu (wen-wu) theories were variously packaged with the teachings of Wang Yangming and the modern martial ethic of bushido (the way of the warrior), and this paper considers the roles of the reformers Liang Qichao and Pak Un-sik in the dissemination of bun-bu thought in China and Korea, respectively.
摘要
文、武二分法是東亞思想中最古老且最為普遍的概念之一。本文檢視中國文武思想傳至日本，及其在該國的後續獨立發展。「文」在中國和韓國傳統上位於「武」之上，居首位，而日本因發展出以武士為中心的獨特社會與政治結構，使其思想家特別強調「武」。因此，至少在文、武的脈絡下，許多日本人願意接受，而非轉化，標誌著大陸解釋的華夷之辨。相較而言，許多日本儒家及相關學派的思想卻傾向於將自中國傳入的思想以將其與源頭分離，並將道德中心重置於日本的方式，加以修訂。日本等同「武國」，中國和韓國等同「文國」為三個社會的知識分子廣泛接受。與此同時，各思想家對於日本「武」的真正內涵卻有極為不同的見解，其間的歧異往往到對該概念的定義可以完全相反的程度。本文主張，便是這種對文武二分法的含糊不清與彈性，確保其在適應新形勢時能持續突顯，並進而導致中國和韓國思想家於二十世紀初將日本的「武」介紹給其祖國的運動。在此過程中，日本的文武理論與王陽明的學說、武士道的現代武術倫理有各種不同程度的結合。本文分別討論改革家梁啟超和朴殷植於文武思想在中國與韓國傳布上的角色。
The binary of martial and civil virtues (wen-wu) is one of the oldest and most pervasive concepts in East Asian thought. This paper examines the transmission of Chinese wen-wu thought to Japan, and its subsequent independent development in that country. Whereas in China and Korea, primacy has traditionally been given to civil virtues over martial ones, the unique warrior-centered social and governmental structure that developed in Japan led its thinkers to more strongly emphasize the martial. As a result, at least in the context of wen-wu, many Japanese were willing to accept, rather than invert, the China/barbarian binary that marked continental interpretations. In comparison, many Japanese Confucians and related schools of thought had otherwise tended to revise ideas imported from China in ways that removed them from their source and relocated the moral center to Japan. The identification of Japan as the “martial country” and China/Korea as the “civil countries” came to be broadly accepted by intellectuals in all three societies. At the same time, the exact nature of Japanese “martiality” varied greatly among different thinkers, often to the extent that definitions of the concept could be polar opposites. This paper argues that it was this vagueness and flexibility of the wen-wu binary that ensured its continued prominence as the concepts were adapted to new situations, and further led to movements by Chinese and Korean thinkers to introduce Japanese martiality into their own nations around the turn of the twentieth century. In this process, Japanese bun-bu (wen-wu) theories were variously packaged with the teachings of Wang Yangming and the modern martial ethic of bushido (the way of the warrior), and this paper considers the roles of the reformers Liang Qichao and Pak Un-sik in the dissemination of bun-bu thought in China and Korea, respectively.
摘要
文、武二分法是東亞思想中最古老且最為普遍的概念之一。本文檢視中國文武思想傳至日本，及其在該國的後續獨立發展。「文」在中國和韓國傳統上位於「武」之上，居首位，而日本因發展出以武士為中心的獨特社會與政治結構，使其思想家特別強調「武」。因此，至少在文、武的脈絡下，許多日本人願意接受，而非轉化，標誌著大陸解釋的華夷之辨。相較而言，許多日本儒家及相關學派的思想卻傾向於將自中國傳入的思想以將其與源頭分離，並將道德中心重置於日本的方式，加以修訂。日本等同「武國」，中國和韓國等同「文國」為三個社會的知識分子廣泛接受。與此同時，各思想家對於日本「武」的真正內涵卻有極為不同的見解，其間的歧異往往到對該概念的定義可以完全相反的程度。本文主張，便是這種對文武二分法的含糊不清與彈性，確保其在適應新形勢時能持續突顯，並進而導致中國和韓國思想家於二十世紀初將日本的「武」介紹給其祖國的運動。在此過程中，日本的文武理論與王陽明的學說、武士道的現代武術倫理有各種不同程度的結合。本文分別討論改革家梁啟超和朴殷植於文武思想在中國與韓國傳布上的角色。
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One hundred years ago today, far from the erupting battlefields of Europe, a small German force in the city of Tsingtau (Qingdao), Germany’s most important possession in China, was preparing for an impending siege. - See more at:... more
One hundred years ago today, far from the erupting battlefields of Europe, a small German force in the city of Tsingtau (Qingdao), Germany’s most important possession in China, was preparing for an impending siege. - See more at: http://blog.oup.com/2014/11/samurai-bushido-british-culture/#sthash.hZk8H4WD.dpuf
Research Interests: Asian Studies, Japanese Studies, German History, Chinese Studies, British History, and 12 moreNationalism, Japanese History, East Asian Studies, Nineteenth Century British History and Culture, National Identity, China, First World War, Japan, Chinese history (History), History of the Samurai, Orientalism, and Bushido 武士道
Research Interests: American History, Military History, Japanese Studies, American Studies, International Relations, and 17 morePeace and Conflict Studies, Chinese Studies, International Security, Conflict, Militarism, Japanese History, Modern and Contemporary Japan, Asia Pacific Region, China, Chinese Politics, Japan, Military and Politics, United States History, China studies, Contemporary China, Chinese history (History), and Defence and Strategic Studies
Research Interests: Japanese Studies, German History, Japanese History, Colonialism, Memory Studies, and 11 moreChina, Modern Chinese History, Chinese history (History), German Colonial Empire, Late Imperial-Modern China, Modern German History, HIstory of Sport, World cup, Imperialism, Qingdao, and Beer and Brewery History
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A revival of interest in the teachings of the Neo-Confucian philosopher Wang Yangming (王陽明, 1472–1529) took place throughout East Asia in the early twentieth century, largely initiated by domestic Japanese developments and responses to... more
A revival of interest in the teachings of the Neo-Confucian philosopher Wang Yangming (王陽明, 1472–1529) took place throughout East Asia in the early twentieth century, largely initiated by domestic Japanese developments and responses to external pressures. In the late Meiji period, the Japanese Wang Yangming tradition (Yōmeigaku) was politicized and proliferated on the basis of the commonly held belief that it represented a challenge to the old Tokugawa order, which designated the thought of Zhu Xi (朱子, 1130–1200) as the orthodox interpretation of Confucianism. In the course of this process of historical revision, there was a tendency to categorize individuals who had opposed the ancien régime in either word or deed as followers of Yōmeigaku, whether or not they had any documented interest in Wang’s teachings. This emphasis on Yōmeigaku as a force for positive change and national strength was especially pronounced in the late 1880s, when widespread disillusionment set in with what was considered by many to be an excessive introduction of Western thought.
The teachings of Wang Yangming were supposedly brought to Japan during his lifetime, but did not reach their peak of influence and importance in that country until the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Especially during the late Meiji period, Yōmeigaku became attractive to men and women of diverse social, political, religious, and economic backgrounds, and the historical role of the school in Japan became heavily politicized. A simultaneous process of assimilation and nativization of Wang’s thought took place, with the most prominent result of this nativization process being its influence on the creation of the bushidō ethic in the last decade of the nineteenth century. In addition to its powerful domestic influence, bushidō soon became known throughout the world, and its diverse admirers included prominent Chinese intellectuals and activists such as Liang Qichao (梁啓超, 1873–1929), Sun Zhongshan (Sun Yat-sen; 孫中山, 1866–1925), and Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-shek; 蒋介石, 1887–1975). To these thinkers, the connections between bushidō and Wang Yangming’s teachings were quite apparent, and they contributed to a resurgence of interest in Wang’s philosophy throughout East Asia in the early twentieth century.
The teachings of Wang Yangming were supposedly brought to Japan during his lifetime, but did not reach their peak of influence and importance in that country until the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Especially during the late Meiji period, Yōmeigaku became attractive to men and women of diverse social, political, religious, and economic backgrounds, and the historical role of the school in Japan became heavily politicized. A simultaneous process of assimilation and nativization of Wang’s thought took place, with the most prominent result of this nativization process being its influence on the creation of the bushidō ethic in the last decade of the nineteenth century. In addition to its powerful domestic influence, bushidō soon became known throughout the world, and its diverse admirers included prominent Chinese intellectuals and activists such as Liang Qichao (梁啓超, 1873–1929), Sun Zhongshan (Sun Yat-sen; 孫中山, 1866–1925), and Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-shek; 蒋介石, 1887–1975). To these thinkers, the connections between bushidō and Wang Yangming’s teachings were quite apparent, and they contributed to a resurgence of interest in Wang’s philosophy throughout East Asia in the early twentieth century.
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Research Interests: History, Military History, Japanese Studies, Japanese Philosophy, Japanese Language And Culture, and 14 moreMartial Arts, Identity (Culture), Ideology, Nationalism, Japanese History, History of concepts, National Identity, Nationalism And State Building, Japan, Concepts, History of Nationalism and Nation-Building, Invented Traditions, History of the Samurai, and Bushido 武士道
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This study examines the development of the concept of “bushido,” or the “way of the warrior,” in modern Japan, focusing on the period between the mid-nineteenth century and the early 1930s. The popular view holds that bushido was a... more
This study examines the development of the concept of “bushido,” or the “way of the warrior,” in modern Japan, focusing on the period between the mid-nineteenth century and the early 1930s. The popular view holds that bushido was a centuries-old code of behavior rooted in the historical samurai class and transmitted into the modern period, where it was a fundamental component of Japanese militarism before 1945. In fact, the concept of bushido was largely unknown before the last decade of the nineteenth century, and was widely disseminated only after 1900, especially after the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5. This study argues that modern bushido discourse began in the 1880s, and was dependent on political and cultural currents relating to Japan’s modernization and the nation’s attempts to redefine itself in the face of foreign “others,” primarily China and the West. Following more than a decade of largely unquestioned thrusts towards modernization and Westernization after 1868, Japanese thinkers looked to their own traditions in search of sources of national identity. The first discussions of bushido at this time were not the work of conservative reactionaries, however, but were conceived by relatively progressive individuals with considerable international experience and a command of Western languages. Some of the first modern writings on bushido clearly posit the concept as a potential native equivalent to the English ethic of “gentlemanship,” which was widely admired in late-nineteenth century Japan, and much of early bushido discourse should be seen primarily as a response to outside stimuli. This study examines the causes and effects of the “bushido boom” that took place between 1898 and 1914, which firmly established the concept not only in Japan, but throughout the world. In this context, this study analyzes the use of bushido by the Japanese military and educational system, as well as its popularization by prominent figures in the early twentieth century. This study also examines the reasons for the decline in the popularity of bushido between 1914 and the early 1930s, thereby providing points of departure for future research on the trajectory of bushido from 1932 to the present day.
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There are many threads that tie together the lives of Hiroike Chikurō (1866-1938) and Nitobe Inazō (1862-1933), two individuals who were not only prominent in modern Japan, but have continued to influence current thought in both Japan and... more
There are many threads that tie together the lives of Hiroike Chikurō (1866-1938) and Nitobe Inazō (1862-1933), two individuals who were not only prominent in modern Japan, but have continued to influence current thought in both Japan and abroad. One of the most significant aspects of both of their thought was their desire for peace and inter-civilizational communication. Although Hiroike and Nitobe were staunch patriots, and sought the roots of their ethical systems in Japanese history and culture, they condemned much of the militaristic fervor that accompanied nationalistic currents throughout the world during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This is further remarkable when one considers that both of these thinkers showed an interest in the ostensibly martial concept of bushidō 武士道 (the way of the warrior), which was largely developed and popularized from the 1890s onward. This paper discusses some of the similarities and differences between the approaches Hiroike and Nitobe had to both bushidō and peace, through this process illuminating some of the broader intellectual and popular thought currents which these two thinkers were influenced by and also acting against.
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As two of the most romanticized symbols of traditional Japan, samurai and castles feature prominently in popular culture and tourist promotions, and serve as important markers of both regional and national identities. In spite of their... more
As two of the most romanticized symbols of traditional Japan, samurai and castles feature prominently in popular culture and tourist promotions, and serve as important markers of both regional and national identities. In spite of their ancient roots, popular images of both samurai and castles were largely formed during and after the late nineteenth century. Bringing together themes from my recent book, Inventing the Way of the Samurai, and my current research project on Japanese castles, this talk explores the modern origins of some of Japan’s most famous traditions, and how these were shaped by domestic and international agendas.
After 1868, samurai and castles faced the new Meiji order as relics of the discredited old regime. Viewed as backward and “feudal” in an age of “civilization and enlightenment,” samurai and castles suffered similar fates in the 1870s and 1880s as victims of popular apathy and even resentment. The eventual rehabilitation of the popular image of the samurai was a long and complicated process. Influenced by Western, especially Victorian, ideals of gentlemanship and medieval chivalry, a number of Japanese thinkers proposed similar moral guidelines for the new Japan. The “way of the samurai,” or bushidō, that emerged from this discourse rapidly gained in popularity after victory in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-5, and was soon widely portrayed as an ancient ethic and even the very “soul of Japan.”
This talk will explore the development of bushidō in modern Japan, comparing the ideological “revival” of the samurai spirit with the growing appreciation for castles, as efforts increased to “save” both of these “national symbols” in an era of growing national strength and confidence. The talk will further consider parallels in their subsequent histories up to the present day.
After 1868, samurai and castles faced the new Meiji order as relics of the discredited old regime. Viewed as backward and “feudal” in an age of “civilization and enlightenment,” samurai and castles suffered similar fates in the 1870s and 1880s as victims of popular apathy and even resentment. The eventual rehabilitation of the popular image of the samurai was a long and complicated process. Influenced by Western, especially Victorian, ideals of gentlemanship and medieval chivalry, a number of Japanese thinkers proposed similar moral guidelines for the new Japan. The “way of the samurai,” or bushidō, that emerged from this discourse rapidly gained in popularity after victory in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-5, and was soon widely portrayed as an ancient ethic and even the very “soul of Japan.”
This talk will explore the development of bushidō in modern Japan, comparing the ideological “revival” of the samurai spirit with the growing appreciation for castles, as efforts increased to “save” both of these “national symbols” in an era of growing national strength and confidence. The talk will further consider parallels in their subsequent histories up to the present day.
Research Interests: History, Japanese Studies, Japanese Language And Culture, Identity (Culture), Ideology, and 12 moreNationalism, Japanese History, National Identity, Nationalism And State Building, Japan, Meiji Japan, Invented Traditions, History of the Samurai, Castles, The way of the samurai, the way of the warrior, Invention of Tradition, and Ethnicity and National Identity
As two of the most romanticized symbols of traditional Japan, samurai and castles feature prominently in popular culture and tourist promotions, and serve as important markers of both regional and national identities. In spite of their... more
As two of the most romanticized symbols of traditional Japan, samurai and castles feature prominently in popular culture and tourist promotions, and serve as important markers of both regional and national identities. In spite of their ancient roots, popular images of them were largely formed during and after the late nineteenth century. After the Meiji restoration of 1868, samurai and castles faced the new order as relics of the discredited old regime. Viewed as backward and “feudal” in an age of “civilization and enlightenment, ” they suffered similar fates in the 1870s and 1880s as victims of popular apathy and even resentment. It was only after this time that attitudes towards Japan’s “feudal” heritage began to change, with modern concerns and ideas playing a vital role in the rehabilitation of Japan’s past.
Bringing together themes from Benesch’s recent book, Inventing the Way of the Samurai, and his current research project, this talk explores the development of Bushido in modern Japan, comparing the ideological “revival” of the samurai spirit with the growing appreciation for castles, as efforts increased to “save” both of these “national” symbols in an era of growing national strength and confidence.
Bringing together themes from Benesch’s recent book, Inventing the Way of the Samurai, and his current research project, this talk explores the development of Bushido in modern Japan, comparing the ideological “revival” of the samurai spirit with the growing appreciation for castles, as efforts increased to “save” both of these “national” symbols in an era of growing national strength and confidence.
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This talk is based on my recent book _Inventing the Way of the Samurai: Nationalism, Internationalism, and Bushido in Modern Japan_.
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Japan ist martialisch, während China großen Wert auf zivile Tugenden legt. Diese Auffassung prägt das gegenseitige Verständnis dieser beiden Länder seit Jahrhunderten, unterstützt von ihren traditionellen Regierungssystemen, wobei Japan... more
Japan ist martialisch, während China großen Wert auf zivile Tugenden legt. Diese Auffassung prägt das gegenseitige Verständnis dieser beiden Länder seit Jahrhunderten, unterstützt von ihren traditionellen Regierungssystemen, wobei Japan von Kriegern regiert wurde und chinesische Staatsbeamte durch konfuzianische Prüfungen erwählt wurden. Die grundlegende Auffassung von einem martialischen Japan wurde bis in die Neuzeit erhalten, wo sie den in der Folgezeit des Sino-Japanischen Krieges 1894-5 popularisierten Bushidō-Diskurs verstärkte. Bushidō, oder „der Weg des Samurai“, ist keine historische Tradition oder Erscheinungsform eines japanischen „Volkscharakters“, sondern eine durchwegs moderne Erfindung, deren vielfältige Interpretationen hauptsächlich den besonderen Bedingungen ihrer verschiedenen Schöpfer entsprechen. So wird Bushidō manchmal positiv als treibende Kraft der japanischen Wirtschaft, bisweilen aber negativ als Hauptgrund für modernen Militarismus und Kriegsverbrechen dargestellt. In China spielt Bushidō seit dem Ende des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts eine wichtige Rolle in der Prägung des allgemeinen Japanbilds, da das größte Wachstum und der vorläufige Höhepunkt der Bushidō-Ideologie zeitgleich mit einer noch nie da gewesenen Welle von chinesischen Studenten, Aktivisten und Exilanten in Japan stattfand. Chinesische Intellektuelle führten die Meiji-Restauration auf Bushidō zurück, während chinesische Studenten an japanischen Hochschulen und Militärakademien zusammen mit ihren Kommilitonen der Bushidō-Ideologie ausgesetzt wurden. Als die Verhältnisse zwischen Japan und China sich verschlechterten, wurde Bushidō in China zunehmend negativ betrachtet, obwohl eine gewisse Vielfältigkeit der Interpretationen erhalten blieb. Nach 1945 verlor Bushidō weltweit an Bedeutung, wurde aber in Japan schon bald nach Kriegsende in neuen Formen wiederbelebt. Chinesisches Interesse an Bushidō begann in den 80er Jahren wieder zu wachsen, und diplomatische Spannungen trugen dazu bei, dass chinesische Autoren in den letzten zwanzig Jahren hunderte Bücher und Artikel über Bushidō veröffentlicht haben. Bushidō wird in diesen Schriften oft als Erklärung für einen „angeborenen“ japanischen Militarismus dargestellt und ist ein Hauptthema in Studien über Japan, wodurch die Ideologie weitreichende Auswirkungen auf sino-japanische Beziehungen auf staatlicher und kultureller Ebene hat.