Suresh Jagtap

The current study used an in-vitro technique to evaluate the functional potential of Dioscorea alata L. and D. bulbifera L. extracts as prebiotics. Prebiotics are nondigestible carbohydrates that undergo a selective fermentation process in the gut to benefit the host, according to Gibson and Roberfroid in 1995. Many wild edible plants are high in carbohydrates and are utilised as both a staple food and medicine for a variety of stomach-related disorders. This study employed sweet tuber (ST), bitter tuber (BT), sweet bulbils (SB), and bitter bulbils (BB) from D. bulbifera, as well as tuber (AT) from D. alata and extracted prebiotics using standard method.The AT plant sample seemed to have the least reducing sugars, with a concentration of 2.83 mg/mL. The prebiotic activity of ST, BT, SB, BB, and AT samples was examined as the sole carbon source for microorganisms; among these, AT exhibited a considerable increase in the growth of recognised probiotics Lactobacillus plantarum, Sacchar...

Plant ‘Sariva’ has been used since long in Ayurveda and folk medicine. There are four differentspecies used as ‘Sariva’ in various regions of India viz., Cryptolepisbuchanani Roem. & Schult., Hemidesmusindicus (L.) R.Br. and Decalepishamiltonii Wight & Arn belongs to same family Asclepiadaceae, whileIchnocarpus frutescens (L.) R. Br. belongs to family Apocynaceae. Present study is designed to evaluate theambiguity in market and authenticate samples of ‘Sariva’ root extract in terms of their polyphenolic contentsand antioxidant profile. Market samples were collected from major markets from India viz., Banglore, Delhi,Mumbai, Nagpur, Pune and West Bengal. While, authenticate species of ‘Sariva’ was collected from WesternGhats of Maharashtra, India. Antioxidant profile was evaluated by nitric oxide scavenging potential, BSAanti-denaturation assay and anti-lipid peroxidation assays. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents werestudied by standard methods viz. Folin-Ciocalte...

Guduchi has been widely used in the traditional medicine as an immunomodulator. Description of guduchi in Ayurvedic literature resemble with T. sinensis rather than with commonly available T. cordifolia and hence this may be used as substitutes for T. sinensis. T. cordifolia growing on Azadirachta indica commonly called Neem-guduchi has more immunomodulatory potential. Thus, immunomodulatory activity of three Tinospora spp. was assessed by checking humoral and cell mediated immune responses to the antigenic challenges with sheep RBCs and by neutrophil adhesion tests on albino Wistar rats using Guduchi-Satwa, a well known dosage form. Results revealed that Neem-guduchi possesses higher immunomodulatory potential at the dose of 300 mg/kg, po and validated the traditional claim. Hence, Neem-Guduchi can be employed in immunomodulatory formulation prepared using guduchi.

Advances in biomedical research have demonstrated that inflammation and its related diseases are the greatest threat to public health. Inflammatory action is the pathological response of the body towards the external stimuli such as infections, environmental factors, and autoimmune conditions to reduce tissue damage and improve patient comfort. However, when detrimental signal-transduction pathways are activated and inflammatory mediators are released over an extended period of time, the inflammatory process continues and a mild but persistent pro-inflammatory state may develop. Numerous degenerative disorders and chronic health issues including arthritis, diabetes, obesity, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases, among others, are associated with the emergence of a low-grade inflammatory state. Though, anti-inflammatory steroidal, as well as non-steroidal drugs, are extensively used against different inflammatory conditions, they show undesirable side effects upon long-term exposure, ...

The COVID-19 had been emerged as a pandemic and resulted in more than 273 million reported cases and 5.3 million deaths worldwide. Concerns have been raised regarding this virus due to its unprecedented ability to move from human to human and cause infections, acute morbidity, and fatal outcome. Gut and lung microbiome profile substantially depends on dietary habits and plays a major role in modulating immunity thereby providing resistance to viral infections. The Gut-lung axis shows a correlation in microbial profile and the gastrointestinal microbiota can modulate lung microbiota majorly through the impact of microbial metabolites. Firmicutes and Actinobacteria specifically Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus are responsible to modulate immunity and are widely used as probiotic species. In this review, we have concluded that different dietary habits affect microbial diversity and it can be a determining factor to fight SARS-CoV2 infections.

In Ayurveda, ‘Vidanga’ is one such species high in demand for its various uses. All the species of genus Embelia and Maesa belonging to the family Myrsinaceae are reported as ‘Vidanga’. Considering the availability of plant material in the market there is an ambiguity in supplying the authentic species as ‘Vidanga’. In the present study, a comparative analysis was carried out to determine the efficacy of different 'Vidanga’ spp. in terms of their phyto-constituents, antioxidant potential, and free radical scavenging activity. The highest total phenolic contents (TPCs) and total flavonoid contents (TFCs) were found to be in ethanolic and ethyl acetate extract. Quantitative measurements also showed that abundance of phenolic and flavonoid phytoconstituents was significantly (P<0.001) greater in ethanolic extract of all the ‘Vidanga’ fractions (1.773±0.01 to 137.17±0.19 mg/g GAE and 4.84±0.001 to 302.29±0.07 mg/g of quercetin respectively) than in ethyl acetate extract (1.15±0.0...

Withania somnifera is a traditional Indian herb described under the ‘Rasayana’ class in Ayurveda, which gained immense popularity as a dietary supplement in the USA, Europe, Asia, and the Indian domestic market. Despite enormous research on the pharmacological effect of withanosides and withanolides, bioanalytical method development and pharmacokinetics remained challenging and unexplored for these constituents due to isomeric and isobaric characteristics. In current research work, molecular descriptors, pharmacokinetic, and toxicity prediction (ADMET) of these constituents were performed using Molinspiration and admetSAR tools. A rapid, selective, and reproducible bioanalytical method was developed and validated for seven withanosides and withanolides as per USFDA/EMA guidelines, further applied to determine pharmacokinetic parameters of Withania somnifera root extract (WSE) constituents in male Sprague Dawley rats at a dose of 500 mg/kg. Additionally, an ex vivo permeability study...

Premna integrifolia Linn and Clerodandrum phlomidis Linn are known under the common name Agnimantha-dvaya [two types]. Roots of both plants are potent inflammatory [Shothahara] and are considered to be useful in the treatment of variety of ailments. According to classical texts, both possess the same properties, so the present study was aimed at evaluating the two roots for their Anti-inflammatory potential by using decoction of drugs. Pharmacognostical study containing organoleptic, Microscopic and physicochemical analysis have been performed. In Experimental study Anti-inflammatory activity was performed on rat paw edema model by using decoction of drugs. This activity defines that both drugs, Premna integrifolia Linn and Clerodandrum phlomidis Linn show Anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting the paw volume increase induced by the chemical carrageen. By the experimental study it is clear that both the drugs show anti-inflammatory activity but Premna integrifolia Linn is more pot...

... Phytochemical screening of the plants indicated that almost all plants are important fromneutraceutical point of view and there is a need to develop techniques for cultivation and processing of such plants for future use. ... [2] Sundriyal, M., Sundriyal, R.: Wild Edible plant of Sikkim ...

Background: Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) is marked with chronic inflammation of intestinal epithelium driven by oxidative stress. Traditional treatments with plant extracts gained renewed interest due to their ability to ameliorate the multi factorial conditions like inflammation. We investigated the beneficial effects of Withania somnifera in Trinitro Benzyl Sulfonic Acid (TNBS) induced experimental IBD through a rectally applicable formulation. Methods: The study included (i) preparation of gel formulation from aqueous Withania somnifera root extract (WSRE), (ii) biochemical assays to determine its performance potential, (iii) testing of formulation efficacy in TNBSinduced IBD rat model, and (iv) histo-patholgical studies to assess its healing and muco-regenerative effect in IBDinduced rats. For this purpose, concentration dependant antioxidant activity of the extracts were evaluated using biochemical assays like (a) inhibition of lipid peroxidation, (b) NO scavenging, (c) H2O...

Manuscript History: Context: Sida cordifolia L. (SC) and Piper longum L. (PL) has been used traditionally for the treatment of osteoarthritis (OA). However the underlying mechanism of their beneficial action is not known. Objective: To investigate in vitro free radical scavenging potential and in vivo anti-osteoarthritic activity of SC and PL. Materials and Methods: SC and PL were studied for free radical scavenging potential along with phenolic content. Anti-osteoarthritic effect of both plants was assessed using collagenase induced OA (CIOA) rat model and further molecular study of isolated synovium was carried out. Statistical analysis was carried out by one-way analysis of variance followed by Fisher's Least Significant Difference test. Results: SC and PL showed free radical scavenging potential, which could be attributed to their phenolic content, which is 10.360±1.165 and 0.633±0.018 mg/gm dry mass, respectively. OA was induced in rats by intra-articular injection of colla...

Dashamoolarishta is a well known Ayurvedic Rasayana preparation comprising ten different roots. At least two of these plants are rare, compelling use of alternatives or substitute plant parts, which could results in pharmacological variation in marketed formulations. Moreover, studies on their anti-inflammatory properties are also lacking. This investigation evaluated antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential of six selected eminent brands of Dashamoolarishta (A, B, C, D, E & F). Sample F stood out as highest (Total Phenolics: 21.67± 0.06 mg GAE/g dry mass; ABTS: 29.23 ±0.09 % and Anti Lipid Peroxidation: 91.94 ±0.02 %). Sample E scored lowest in all these values. Formulations F, B and E were further compared using carrageenan-induced rat paw edema model of inflammation. All formulations exhibited variations in anti-inflammatory activity. Maximum inhibition was in animals intervened with formulation F (44.16 %) comparable to that of standard Diclofenac (48.10 %, 10 mg/kg) at 6 h. ...

Objective: Selected medicinal plants are either singly or in combination have been used traditionally for the management of variety of conditions especially against inflammatory disorders. They include Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr., Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC., Gmelina arborea Roxb., Oroxylum indicum Vent., Premna optusifolia R. Br., Solanum anguivi Lam., Solanum virginianum L., Stereospermum colais Mabb. Tribulus terrestris L. and Uraria picta (Jacq.) Desv. ex DC. They are the constitutents of Ayurvedic Dashamoola which is a combination of roots of ten plants, owing to a unique combination of ten plants that play specific role in treatment of different conditions. Few of them are known to possess anti-inflammatory activity individualy but comparative study of these plants has never been carried out, therefore we have comparatively investigated these plants for their anti-inflammatory activity. Method: Water decoctions of roots were administered orally using in vivo Carrageenan induce...

The paper enumerates ethnobotanical uses of 28 plant species that are endemic and/or in the RET (Rare, Endangered and Threatened) category belonging to 15 families, by Pawra tribe of Nandurbar district. Plants are arranged alphabetically with their botanical name, followed by family, IUCN status, local names and uses. Efforts for conservation, cultivation and afforestation have been done with help of the state forest department and Pawra tribe for the sustainable use of such important plant species in near future.

Rubia cordifolia Linn. a flowering plant species from family Rubiaceae is an important medicinal plant. It is known to have anti-diabetic, antiseptic and antistress properties. In the present paper, antiglycation, antioxidant and antidiabetic activities of roots of Rubia cordifolia Linn. were investigated. Anti-AGE (Advance glycation end products) effect of Rubia cordifolia Linn. on glycation of guanosine with glucose and fructose was analyzed. The inhibitory effect of plant extract on glycation and fructation of guanosine in presence of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by hydrogen peroxide, was also analyzed. In vitro antioxidant (DPPH, Superoxide anion scavenging activity and Xanthine oxidase) and antidiabetic assays (Alpha amylase and alpha glucosidase) were performed to determine these activities of plant extract. The UV absorbance of the glycation reactions was found to be maximum at 24 hrs. and with consecutive decreased at 48 and 72 hours. Plant extract of Rubia cordif...

Covid-19 caused by novel coronavirus, 2019-nCoV or SARS-CoV-2 has become most severe pandemic of this century. No specific therapies are available to treat Covid-19 so far. Recently, main protease (M pro ), a potential drug target from SARS-CoV-2 has been successfully crystallised. The present study is aimed at assessment of bioactive antiviral phytochemicals as potential SARS-COV-2 M pro inhibitors, using ensemble docking, molecular dynamics and MM-PBSA calculations. Ensemble docking studies were performed with Autodock vina program. The top 5 compounds having highest binding free energy were subjected to 100 ns molecular dynamics simulations with Gromacs. The resulting trajectories of converged period of MD were further exploited in MM-PBSA calculations to derive accurate estimates of binding free energies. The MD results were analysed with respect to RMSD, RMSF and hydrogen bond formation and occupancy parameters. The drugs remdesivir and nelfinavir were used as standard drugs fo...

health benefits to the host such as prevention of infection in the digestive tract, activate, and modulate the immune response and increase the number of native bacteria in the gut. The present study was aimed to isolate bacteria from donkey dung and characterize for probiotic activity. Bacterial cultures were isolated from excreta of infant donkey and were characterized using standard procedures. Cultures were grown anaerobically, and in total 16 cultures showing Lactobacillus morphology were further screened for the probiotic property. Isolate LB-VII was found to be non-hemolytic and has the ability to tolerate 1.2% bile, pH 1.5~10, 8% NaCl as well as showed growth at 42°C. The culture survived gastric and intestinal environment and showed bile salt hydrolysis activity. LB-VII exhibited 100% auto-aggregation and hydrophobic reaction. The culture could also co-aggregate with Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, and Staphylococcus aureus, a property, which is required to control...

Objective: In the context of today’s scenario of disease progression due to oxidative stress, there is a need to find out natural antioxidants of plant origin. Several plants have been used as food as well as medicine. Dioscorea alata L. (DA) is one of the plants routinely used as food and medicine and can be effectively utilized as source of natural antioxidants. DA is an important staple food as well as medicinal plant but its scientific authentication and mechanism of action has not been investigated. Methods: We investigated ethanolic and water extracts of DA for its polyphenolic content and free radical quenching potential using in vitro system. Results: Both the extracts showed high reductive potential and total antioxidant capacity. Similarly, it has effective free radical scavenging potential against 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, nitric oxide and lipid peroxidation. Comparatively, potency of ethanol extract resembles with standard ascorbic acid, which may be due to presenc...

Failure of conventional anti-inflammatory therapies in osteoarthritis (OA) underlines the insufficient knowledge about inflammatory mechanisms, patterns and their relationship with cartilage degradation. Considering non-linear nature of cartilage loss in OA, a better understanding of inflammatory milieu and MMP status at different stages of OA is required to design early-stage therapies or personalized disease management. For this, an investigation based on a synovium-synovial fluid (SF) axis was planned to study OA associated changes in synovium and SF along the progressive grades of OA. Gene expressions in synovial-biopsies from different grades OA patients (N = 26) revealed a peak of IL-1β, IL-15, PGE2 and NGF in early OA (Kellgren–Lawrence (KL) grade-I and II); the highest MMP levels were found in advanced stages (KL grade-III and IV). MMPs (MMP-1, 13, 2 and 9) abundance and FALGPA activity estimated in forty SFs of progressive grades showed the maximum protein levels and activi...

Premna integrifolia Linn and Clerodandrum phlomidis Linn are known under the common name Agnimantha-dvaya [two types]. Roots of both plants are potent inflammatory [Shothahara] and are considered to be useful in the treatment of variety of ailments. According to classical texts, both possess the same properties, so the present study was aimed at evaluating the two roots for their Anti-inflammatory potential by using decoction of drugs. Pharmacognostical study containing organoleptic, Microscopic and physicochemical analysis have been performed. In Experimental study Anti-inflammatory activity was performed on rat paw edema model by using decoction of drugs. This activity defines that both drugs, Premna integrifolia Linn and Clerodandrum phlomidis Linn show Anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting the paw volume increase induced by the chemical carrageen. By the experimental study it is clear that both the drugs show anti-inflammatory activity but Premna integrifolia Linn is more potent drug then Clerodandrum phlomidisLinn.

There has been enormous interest in the development of alternative medicines for oxidative stress and related disorders. Plants are playing important role in the management of these disorders. Tubers of Eulophia ochreata L. have been traditionally used by several tribes to manage these disorders. Hence, the goal of the present study was to provide in vitro evidence for potential inhibition of reactive oxygen species (ROS), a-amylase enzyme using methanolic and aqueous extract where as some of the glycated proteins using aqueous extract of tubers of Eulophia ochreata L. As a result, antioxidant activity for both methanolic and aqueous extract showed remarkable results for DPPH radical scavenging activity (IC 50 value 48 and 196 µg/ml), total antioxidant capacity using phosphomolybdenum method (8.40 and 28.27 mg/g of GAE), reducing power assay (0.219 and 0.186). Total phenolic (1.72 and 0.67 mg/g of GAE) and flavonoid content (0.067 and 0.108 mg/g of quercetin) were also determined. M...

Current osteoarthritis (OA) research experiences an incline toward Ayurveda to attain a complete cure without notable adverse effects. Ayurveda uses natural products, which are known to perform the multi-faceted role, a much demanding approach for OA management. However, lack of scientific evidence is a major drawback hindering their wider use. The present work investigated the anti-arthritic potential of , , and -extract to establish molecular-evidence for their clinical use. Rabbit synoviocytes were induced using interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 β) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) separately and were further treated with study formulations to test anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant potential, using nitric oxide (NO) and malondialdehyde (MDA) assays. Collagenase inhibition activity was estimated with N-(3-[2-Furyl] acryloyl)-Leu-Gly-Pro-Ala (FALGPA)-substrate and gelatinase spot assays. Data were analyzed with GraphPad Prism using one-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni's multiple comparison....

The process of formation or appearance of a urinary stone anywhere in the renal tract is known as urolithiasis. It is a longstanding health problem, known to exist since early age of civilization. Records about symptoms, signs and treatment strategies of urinary stones diseases are found in the several ancient texts of traditional medicines such as Ayurveda, Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), Siddha and Unani. In Ayurveda, urolithiasis has been considered as one of the eight most troublesome diseases. Ayurvedic management and cure of urinary stone involves herbal formulas, alkaline liquids and surgical procedures. Whereas, TCM recommends polyherbal drugs, acupuncture and mexibustion for treatment of the urinary stones. Among these therapies, herbal remedies are in practice till today for the treatment and cure urinary stone diseases. A comprehensive review of the scientific literature about pathophysiology of urinary stones and antiurolithiatic plants was undertaken using the following bibliographic databases: MEDLINE/PubMed, Scopus, Web of Knowledge and Google Scholar. The search was conducted from publications from all years until Dec., 2015 by combination of the search terms and Boolean operators; 'urinary stone' OR 'kidney stone' AND 'plant' OR 'medicine' OR 'antiurolithiatic plants'. Outputs were restricted to those completed studies only published in English. In this review, literatures about plants which are used as diuretic and/or in treatment urinary tract infections have not also been considered. The Plant List and Royal Botanical Garden, Kew databases were used to authenticate botanical names of plants. Books and monographs published in English were used to collect information about historical records of antiurolithiatic plants. Recent pharmacological interventions accredited ancient antiurolithiatic claims to several plants and their formulations. The majority of antiurolithiatic plants were found to either dissolve the stones or inhibit the process of urinary stone formation. Plants such as Phyllanthus niruri L. and Elymus repens (L.) Gould, as well as herbal products including 'Wu-Ling-San' formula, 'Cystone' and 'Herbmed' have been proved their utility as promising antiurolithiatic medicines in the different phases of clinical trials. In addition, some of the isolated phytochemicals such as berberine, lupeol, khelin, visnagin,…

Overdose of acetaminophen (APAP) is common in humans and is often associated with hepatic damage. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Solanaceae) shows multiple pharmacological activities including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential. To evaluate the possible mechanism of hepatoprotective activity of withanolide-rich fraction (WRF) isolated from a methanolic extract of Withania somnifera roots. Hepatotoxicity was induced by oral administration of APAP (750 mg/kg, p.o.) for 14 d. The control group received the vehicle. APAP-treated animals were given either silymarin (25 mg/kg) or graded doses of WRF (50, 100 and 200mg/kg) 2 h prior to APAP administration. Animals were killed on 15th day and blood and liver tissue samples were collected for the further analysis. In WRF-treated group, there was significant and dose-dependent (p < 0.01 and p < 0.001) decrease in serum bilirubin, ALP, AST and ALT levels with significant and dose-dependent (p < 0.01 and p < 0.001) increase...

ABSTRACT Traditional medicines have nurtured the knowledge of natural remedies against disease since ages. Ayurved has a long and strong heritage of use of poly herbal drugs and formulations to treat various diseases. Saraswatarishta is one of the most commonly practiced Medhya Rasayana (Cognition enhancer), which is known to improve total mental ability. The current study was aimed to evaluate variation in physicochemical characters of Saraswatarishta if any and its comparative free-radical scavenging potential as a result of pre – sterilization. Among all the four batches, total reducing sugar decreased whereas the alcohol content increased with duration of fermentation. Fresh flowers of Woodfordiafruticosa against dried flowers has shown to enhance the fermentation process. In vitro biochemical assays showed variable total phenol content (NDF: 2.94; NFF: 3.19; SDF: 0.63; SFF: 0.59 mg/g dry mass Gallic acid equivalent). Comparatively higher DPPH free-radical scavenging activity was also observed in NFF: 77.94 % and SFF: 75% respectively (at 100 μg/ml). All batches showed significant ferric reducing and total antioxidant ability (FRAP). Formulations have also shown anti-lipid peroxidation potential, where, NFF has higher scavenging activity (52.57% at 100 μg/ml) with IC50 value (102.10 μg/ml). Since oxidative stress in the brain is one of the majority causes of several cognitive disorders, potent in vitro free-radical scavenging activity of Saraswatarishta could be the probable mode of action of this formulation. The study also shows sterilization before fermentation has a favourable effect on the quality of traditional fermented formulations in relation to their physicochemical and pharmacological parameters.

Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, shows several pharmacological properties which are attributed mainly to the withanolides present in the root. The efficacy of medicinally active withanolides constituents depends on the absorption and transportation through the intestinal epithelium. We examined these characteristics by employing the Sino-Veda Madin-Darby canine kidney cells culture system, which under in vitro condition shows the absorption characteristics similar to the human intestinal epithelium. Thus, the aim of the present investigation was to assess the bioavailability of individual withanolides. Withanolides were diluted in Hank's buffered saline at a concentration of 2 μg/ml were tested for permeability studies carried out for 1 h duration. Permeability was measured in terms of efflux pump (P eff) in cm/s. P eff values of withanolide A (WN A), withanone (WNN), 1,2-deoxywithastramonolide (1,2 DWM), withanolide B (WN B), withanoside IV-V (WS IV-V), and withaferin A were 4.05...

An ethno-botanical survey was undertaken to collect information on the use of medicinal plants for the treatment of snake-bite and scorpion-bite of Thakar tribe in Raigad District, Maharashtra during 2005-2006. The indigenous knowledge of local traditional healers about the native plants used for medicinal purposes was collected through a questionnaire by personal interviews during field visits. A forest walk with the healers enabled plant collection and documentation relating to the remedial information of plants used against snake-bite and scorpion- bite. In the present investigation, 25 plant species, belonging to 23 different families used by the tribal people against snake-bite and scorpionbite are documented. The study showed that the Thakar tribes of Raigad District still continue to depend on medicinal plants for the treatment of these bites. This wealth of traditional knowledge needs to be collected and preserved which may help to understand remedial plant metabolites for d...

The present study was conducted to investigate antioxidant, collagenase inhibitory activity of ether soluble phenolic components of n-butanol fraction (ESP-BF) of flaxseed. Results demonstrated that ESP-BF had potent DPPH radical scavenging (IC50 51.18 μg/ml) and anti-lipid peroxidation (IC50 70.74 μg/ml) activity better than standard, ascorbic acid. ESP-BF also showed a dose dependent increase in reducing power. However, the observed ABTS scavenging activity of ESP-BF was weaker than standard, trolox. ESP-BF showed high concentration of total phenolics than flavonoids. Preliminary phytochemical screening and HPTLC profiling of ESP-BF could exhibit presence of secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG), flavonoids and phenyl propanoids. Furthermore, ESP-BF inhibited collagenase activity and had IC50 of 78.80 μg/ml. In conclusion, ESP-BF possesses potent antioxidant and collagenase inhibitory activity, which could be due to its SDG and flavonoids content.