In their search for an authentic moral self, women and men may at some point in their lives assume a position of resistance. Men are most likely to take their moral stand in the public sphere of war. It is not clear where women would... more
In their search for an authentic moral self, women and men may at some point in their lives assume a position of resistance. Men are most likely to take their moral stand in the public sphere of war. It is not clear where women would choose to demonstrate moral resistance, what the nature of this resistance might be, and the extent to which women’s resistance is similar to men’s. What then are the positions of criticism before women in their own “war zone”? How similar are these positions to those of men in their own gendered sphere? Can they resist or rebel against their assigned missions (marriage, childbearing, childraising, and loneliness and childlessness if not married)? What moral and non-moral factors are involved in this process? Is it right to say that “most women in history have become mothers without choice” (Rich, 1986, p. 13)?
Using an exhaustive questionnaire entitled “How Do You Feel about Having a Child? ”, McKaughan (1987) provided the hypothetical reasoning of potential unwed mothers, identified from a sample of 5000 women who chose to answer the... more
Using an exhaustive questionnaire entitled “How Do You Feel about Having a Child? ”, McKaughan (1987) provided the hypothetical reasoning of potential unwed mothers, identified from a sample of 5000 women who chose to answer the questionnaire. Of the women over 30 years old who were not married, 59% felt threatened by their biological clock and were eager to have a baby. Two-thirds of them said they would consider having a baby on their own.
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After I got divorced, I knew that although I had not had children within my marriage, it was clear to me and to everyone who knew me that at a certain age I would try to have a child whether I had remarried or remained single. Obviously... more
After I got divorced, I knew that although I had not had children within my marriage, it was clear to me and to everyone who knew me that at a certain age I would try to have a child whether I had remarried or remained single. Obviously there is some gap between your decision to have a child and the actual birth. I think it was very lucky that my pregnancy occurred as it did, unplanned, so that I did not have to face the dilemma of whether it was fair to bring a child with such social difficulties into this world, a child who would have to cope with the social stigma of being born out of wedlock. Indeed, after I found I was pregnant and the man with whom I was living told me he was not willing to share the responsibilities of child rearing, I had some hard days deciding whether to keep the child or to abort it. For me, having a child out of wedlock was not the problem, rather it was that the world of children is cruel and that it would be harder for the child to cope than for me as ...
L'A. analyse la situation des soldats appartenant aux forces de reserve de l'armee israelienne. Il souligne que les reservistes ont a supporter, au cours de leur vie, de tres longues periodes de rappel sous les drapeaux. Il montre... more
L'A. analyse la situation des soldats appartenant aux forces de reserve de l'armee israelienne. Il souligne que les reservistes ont a supporter, au cours de leur vie, de tres longues periodes de rappel sous les drapeaux. Il montre que cette situation favorise un fort courant de contestation, parmi les reservistes, contre la charge sociale et morale liee aux obligations militaires dont ils doivent s'acquitter. Cette contestation peut conduire a des defections ou a des suicides, elle peut, de meme, favoriser l'emigration vers d'autres pays.
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Les AA. s'interessent aux non-evenements c'est-a-dire aux aspirations des individus qui n'ont pu se concretiser. Ils se demandent si ce type d'evenement constitue un facteur de stress et cela plus particulierement en ce... more
Les AA. s'interessent aux non-evenements c'est-a-dire aux aspirations des individus qui n'ont pu se concretiser. Ils se demandent si ce type d'evenement constitue un facteur de stress et cela plus particulierement en ce qui concerne les individus qui ont a faire face a une importante transition dans leur existence. Ils se demandent si ce type de situation concerne les israeliens installes dans les pays developpes. Ils presentent un certain nombre de donnees collectees aupres d'israeliens expatries dans les pays occidentaux. Ils se demandent comment ces individus, dans ce cadre, sont contraints de renoncer au mode de vie israelien et s'adaptent a la culture de leur pays d'accueil
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A person's belief in the moral character of his own act is surely not the only court before which that act may be judged. While a reflective conscience is a necessary court, and a very important one, it is not a sufficient one. The... more
A person's belief in the moral character of his own act is surely not the only court before which that act may be judged. While a reflective conscience is a necessary court, and a very important one, it is not a sufficient one. The audience would want to know whether the individual was acting conscientiously, and whether this way of acting might have moral and/or political motivation. The following paper utilizes Cohen's model for identification of the motivatio n for conscientious disobedience and develops a model of a personally motivated refusal as well.
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This paper analyzes real-life moral dilemmas of Israeli city and kibbutz adolescents. The contribution of Gilligan's theory to our knowledge of adolescent moral development as originally conceived by Kohlberg is emphasized. It is... more
This paper analyzes real-life moral dilemmas of Israeli city and kibbutz adolescents. The contribution of Gilligan's theory to our knowledge of adolescent moral development as originally conceived by Kohlberg is emphasized. It is suggested that Kohlberg's view of the adolescent as a moral philosopher limits the understanding of the moral development of female adolescents, who use both care and justice in their self-descriptions within existing relationships.
Research Interests: Psychology, Decision Making, Sexuality, Social Justice, Moral Development, and 15 moreAdolescent, Gender Identity, Israel, Humans, Adolescence, Female, Male, Jews, Interpersonal Relations, Self Concept, Morals, Psychological Theory, Psychosexual Development, Rural Population, and Residence Characteristics
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“Congratulations! It’s a lovely young soldier!” I heard the joyful voice of the midwife. Semiconscious and exhausted by the struggle with my first birth, I was not sure whether these words were real or a dream. Indeed, the word “soldier”... more
“Congratulations! It’s a lovely young soldier!” I heard the joyful voice of the midwife. Semiconscious and exhausted by the struggle with my first birth, I was not sure whether these words were real or a dream. Indeed, the word “soldier” was not farfetched: I had the feeling that I was a soldier, just alive, back from the battlefield, the pain, the blood, the screaming, no help in sight, ghost figures around, uniforms, consciousness and subconsciousness altogether. But the midwife’s intentions were good. She was thinking about the future: I ought to be happy— the one newly born into this world was a boy, and boyhood is to be tested in soldiering.
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... LEBANON WAR: WHAT CAN THE ... guerillas in the area. For the first time in the country's history, a number of reserve soldiers (a total of 143) disobeyed the command to join their units in Lebanon, claiming that this military... more
... LEBANON WAR: WHAT CAN THE ... guerillas in the area. For the first time in the country's history, a number of reserve soldiers (a total of 143) disobeyed the command to join their units in Lebanon, claiming that this military mission was inconsistent with their moral convictions. ...
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In the search for their moral identity, Israeli soldiers seem to have turned to their collective memories for guidance (Shapira, 1971, Young, 1989). This paper focused on this search among objecting reserve soldiers during the Intifada.... more
In the search for their moral identity, Israeli soldiers seem to have turned to their collective memories for guidance (Shapira, 1971, Young, 1989). This paper focused on this search among objecting reserve soldiers during the Intifada. It showed that Holocaust symbols and metaphors were being used as a frame of reference against which one's moral confusion was judged (Linn, 1991). As noted by Young (1989) “What is remembered of the Holocaust depends on how it is remembered, and how events are remembered depends in turn on the text now giving them form” (p. 1) The Intifada seems to create this text. The memories of the Holocaust, seem to provide the Israeli reserve soldier who is also the reader and the actor of and in this text, new psychological tools to assert his moral self.
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The following paper analyzes two types of moral reasoning presented by two moral figures from the My Lai massacre and in an extreme morally conflicting situation during the first phase of the Intifada. The socio-moral and political forces... more
The following paper analyzes two types of moral reasoning presented by two moral figures from the My Lai massacre and in an extreme morally conflicting situation during the first phase of the Intifada. The socio-moral and political forces that shape the state of min d of the acting soldiers are delineated. The work of Kohlberg (1984) and Gilligan (1987) serve as the theoretical framework for this inquiry.
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This paper reflects on the work of Lawrence Kohlberg and Carol Gilligan as a missing chapter in the counseling curricula, and discusses the explanatory power of each theory. The paper illustrates how Kohlberg's theory mirrors the... more
This paper reflects on the work of Lawrence Kohlberg and Carol Gilligan as a missing chapter in the counseling curricula, and discusses the explanatory power of each theory. The paper illustrates how Kohlberg's theory mirrors the “separate” truth of theories of development, and the alternative truths suggested by Gilligan.
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The particularity of the phenomenon of selective conscientious objection to given war objectives or conduct in the war requires an inquiry beyond individual moral character. This paper follows Walzer's 1970 suggestion that objection... more
The particularity of the phenomenon of selective conscientious objection to given war objectives or conduct in the war requires an inquiry beyond individual moral character. This paper follows Walzer's 1970 suggestion that objection on moral ground is not solely the product of an individual's moral thinking but rather a function of the character of the community as well as the relations between them. The paper focuses on the experience of 48 selective conscientious objectors throughout the first four years of the Palestinian uprising in the occupied territories. Their experience is compared with that of the selective refusers during the war in Lebanon. Special attention is given to the moral atmosphere in which these actions have been taken and the contextual factors associated with their decision to refuse.
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In this paper are raised some crucial moral questions regarding the rights of the AIDS child within the educational setting: Should an AIDS child be included to or excluded from his class? The nature of the decision making process in this... more
In this paper are raised some crucial moral questions regarding the rights of the AIDS child within the educational setting: Should an AIDS child be included to or excluded from his class? The nature of the decision making process in this matter is discussed in line with Kohlberg's moral psychological theory.
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According to Cohen, soldiers' refusal to take part in an ongoing war out of their “cry of conscience” might be direct or indirect in form, and morally or politically motivated. The dominant group among a sample of 36 Israeli selective... more
According to Cohen, soldiers' refusal to take part in an ongoing war out of their “cry of conscience” might be direct or indirect in form, and morally or politically motivated. The dominant group among a sample of 36 Israeli selective conscientious objectors during the first year of the war in Lebanon (June 1982-June 1985) were combatant medics. Were their motives moral ones? The following paper delineates the motives of this group of moral actors.
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Routine daily experience does not always provide physicians and moral researchers the opportunity to focus on the ways in which personal moral values are put into practice. An extreme situation—a physicians' strike—provided such an... more
Routine daily experience does not always provide physicians and moral researchers the opportunity to focus on the ways in which personal moral values are put into practice. An extreme situation—a physicians' strike—provided such an opportunity. This paper is based on interviews with 50 Israeli striking physicians. The extent to which the physicians' justifications of their action reflected their moral competence, is discussed.
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During the last three decades cognitive developmental psychology conceptualized morality as a phenomenon that develops among peers in a context-free world, and is most likely to be tested among first-year psychology students. The nature... more
During the last three decades cognitive developmental psychology conceptualized morality as a phenomenon that develops among peers in a context-free world, and is most likely to be tested among first-year psychology students. The nature of real-life irreversible actions like those the individual faces in the context of war, when one’s own and others’ lives are at risk, when decisions have to be made on the spur of the moment, in an authoritative setting and under social pressure, has not been a major focus of inquiry. Lawrence Kohlberg, best known for his extensive analyses of the delicate connection between means and ends in the construction of moral maturity, refrained from addressing the real-life moral issues of war. Although Kohlberg’s career lasted during the ten years of the Vietnam War, he devoted time to the study of only one soldier—Michael Bernhardt—who, so he claimed, refused to shoot in the My Lai massacre. This article analyzes Kohlberg’s study of the relation between moral judgment and moral action of combatants in time of war.
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Research Interests: Psychology, Cognitive Science, Ethics, Israel, Race, and 3 moreSocial Structure, Ethnic Group, and Social Norm
... Ruth Linn and Ilan Gur-Ze'ev School of Education Haifa University ... When the Bush administration, for example, referred to Saddam Hussein as "worse than Hitler" (Edwards, 1988) or compared the invasion of... more
... Ruth Linn and Ilan Gur-Ze'ev School of Education Haifa University ... When the Bush administration, for example, referred to Saddam Hussein as "worse than Hitler" (Edwards, 1988) or compared the invasion of Kuwait on August 2, 1990, to the Nazi invasion of Poland on ...
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This paper is an attempt to profile the personal and societal incentives for selective refusal among Israeli reserve soldiers during the Intifada. The article draws in part upon Kohlberg's model of moral development and addresses the... more
This paper is an attempt to profile the personal and societal incentives for selective refusal among Israeli reserve soldiers during the Intifada. The article draws in part upon Kohlberg's model of moral development and addresses the following questions: (1) What is the motivation for selective refusal in times of morally-controversial conflicts such as the Intifada? (2) What socio-psychological incentives could ease the way to refusal? (3) What differentiates the individual objecting soldier from the objecting soldier who does not refuse to serve? The data for this theoretical discussion are taken from studies of 48 Israeli reserve soldiers out of 165 who decided to refuse military service within the first four years of the Intifada (Linn, 1995a, 1995b, 1995c) and of 36 out of 86 soldiers who refused during the war in Lebanon (Linn, 1989a). The findings suggest that unlike other objecting yet non-refusing soldiers, the selective refusers were motivated to change the unjust situation by assuming a position of disobedience to which they were personally predisposed and were capable of doing in their close milieu. Intifada and Lebanon refusers differed in their political affiliation and their different social support for their action.
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Throughout the 3-year war in Lebanon (1982-1985) and throughout the 7 years of the first Intifada (1987-1994), about 170 objecting reservists chose to adopt an unconventional mode of moral resolution for their dilemma about service in the... more
Throughout the 3-year war in Lebanon (1982-1985) and throughout the 7 years of the first Intifada (1987-1994), about 170 objecting reservists chose to adopt an unconventional mode of moral resolution for their dilemma about service in the conflict: they disobeyed the order to serve in the war zone when their unit was called up. They argued that such service would contradict the dictates of their conscience. At the outset, the intention of most of these reservists was to comply with orders for general military service. They asked to serve within the Green Line. When their request was overruled and they continued to disregard their call-up, they were charged with a disciplinary offense (Israel has no legal provision for selective conscientious objection). They subsequently were tried by court-martial and were sentenced to 14-35 days in military prison, some of them more than once when they refused additional drafts. Their major conscientious claims revolve around two major constraints: resisting the unfair physical load of military reserve service and resisting the obligation to face morally no-win situations. I would further argue that even though most of the public and the senior army echelons were familiar with these two types of moral voices, they preferred to remove the conscientious soldiers from their posts, or to ignore the claims themselves.
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... Chodorow, 1978, 1997; Miller, 1976), how do single and childless women construct their autonomy (McKaughan, 1987; Pedersen et al., 1994; Yanay & Birns ... I have traveled abroad, seen all the movies and plays, dated men but was... more
... Chodorow, 1978, 1997; Miller, 1976), how do single and childless women construct their autonomy (McKaughan, 1987; Pedersen et al., 1994; Yanay & Birns ... I have traveled abroad, seen all the movies and plays, dated men but was not stuck with the unwanted guy because I ...
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The particularity of the phenomenon of selective conscientious objection to given war objectives or conduct in the war requires an inquiry beyond individual moral character. This paper follows Walzer's 1970 suggestion... more
The particularity of the phenomenon of selective conscientious objection to given war objectives or conduct in the war requires an inquiry beyond individual moral character. This paper follows Walzer's 1970 suggestion that objection on moral ground is not solely the product of an individual's moral thinking but rather a function of the character of the community as well as the relations between them. The paper focuses on the experience of 48 selective conscientious objectors throughout the first four years of the Palestinian uprising in the occupied territories. Their experience is compared with that of the selective refusers during the war in Lebanon. Special attention is given to the moral atmosphere in which these actions have been taken and the contextual factors associated with their decision to refuse.
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... ZCorrespondence concerning this article should be sent to Haifa University, School of Education,Haifa, Israel, 31999. 1149 JournalofAppliedSocial Psychology, 1988,18, 13, pp. ... The scores for MJI and AMR were given in a form of... more
... ZCorrespondence concerning this article should be sent to Haifa University, School of Education,Haifa, Israel, 31999. 1149 JournalofAppliedSocial Psychology, 1988,18, 13, pp. ... The scores for MJI and AMR were given in a form of moral maturity scores as well as global scores. ...
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In their search for an authentic moral self, women and men may at some time in their lives assume a position of resistance. Men are most likely to assume this position in the sphere of war. It is not clear, however, where or when women... more
In their search for an authentic moral self, women and men may at some time in their lives assume a position of resistance. Men are most likely to assume this position in the sphere of war. It is not clear, however, where or when women would be expected to assume such a position or what the nature of that position
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The purpose of this study was to explore the meaning of power for 36 disadvantaged women. Interview responses were coded for moral orientation (care, justice), self-definition (connected, separate) and relational context, as well as... more
The purpose of this study was to explore the meaning of power for 36 disadvantaged women. Interview responses were coded for moral orientation (care, justice), self-definition (connected, separate) and relational context, as well as examined for themes of power. Analyses did not support the expectation that the majority of disadvantaged women would experience power as a care orientation. Moreover, being employed or a mother did not moderate a woman's view of power as justice or care. As expected, women were more likely to describe relational rather than non-relational power experiences. Identified power themes were consistent with those found by other researchers but several new themes were also identified. Dominant themes were: power is legitimized by a woman's role and power is destructive when used in a negative way.
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According to Cohen, soldiers' refusal to take part in an ongoing war out of their “cry of conscience” might be direct or indirect in form, and morally or politically motivated. The dominant group among a sample of... more
According to Cohen, soldiers' refusal to take part in an ongoing war out of their “cry of conscience” might be direct or indirect in form, and morally or politically motivated. The dominant group among a sample of 36 Israeli selective conscientious objectors during the first year of the war in Lebanon (June 1982-June 1985) were combatant medics. Were their motives moral ones? The following paper delineates the motives of this group of moral actors.
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A person's belief in the moral character of his own act is surely not the only court before which that act may be judged. While a reflective conscience is a necessary court, and a very important one, it is not a sufficient... more
A person's belief in the moral character of his own act is surely not the only court before which that act may be judged. While a reflective conscience is a necessary court, and a very important one, it is not a sufficient one. The audience would want to know whether the individual was acting conscientiously, and whether this way of acting might have moral and/or political motivation. The following paper utilizes Cohen's model for identification of the motivatio n for conscientious disobedience and develops a model of a personally motivated refusal as well.
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Practising moral judgement within the day care center: A look at the educator's moral decision under stress RUTH LINN Haifa. ... Level 3-POSTCONVENTIONAL/PRINCIPLED THINKING Stage 5. SOCIAL CONTRACT Life liberty... more
Practising moral judgement within the day care center: A look at the educator's moral decision under stress RUTH LINN Haifa. ... Level 3-POSTCONVENTIONAL/PRINCIPLED THINKING Stage 5. SOCIAL CONTRACT Life liberty always be The greatest good to Rationality prior to ...
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Client advocacy refers to various expressions of taking a stand such as representing and supporting the interests of clients and of populations with special needs, informing them of their rights in particular situations, making sure they... more
Client advocacy refers to various expressions of taking a stand such as representing and supporting the interests of clients and of populations with special needs, informing them of their rights in particular situations, making sure they have all the necessary information to make an informed decision, safeguarding their rights, and promoting legislation, policy and social awareness that may affect care and quality of life through education and public activism. The purpose of the present study is to examine situations in which occupational therapists identify the need for their involvement on behalf of clients, and identify factors that affect their behaviour when they protect, represent or inform clients about their rights. In-depth ethnographic interviews were conducted with 12 Israeli registered occupational therapists representing a variety of professional specializations and work settings. From the analysis of the results three main themes were identified as follows: a) the interviewees view themselves as “guardians of morals” in relation to personal, professional and social misconduct, b) occupational therapists become advocates when mediation is needed to represent clients' functional abilities, and c) the role of client advocacy is affected and shaped by occupational therapists' perceptions and experiences of the interdisciplinary team.
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... Ruth Linn and Ilan Gur-Ze'ev School of Education Haifa University ... When the Bush administration, for example, referred to Saddam Hussein as "worse than Hitler" (Edwards, 1988) or compared the invasion of... more
... Ruth Linn and Ilan Gur-Ze'ev School of Education Haifa University ... When the Bush administration, for example, referred to Saddam Hussein as "worse than Hitler" (Edwards, 1988) or compared the invasion of Kuwait on August 2, 1990, to the Nazi invasion of Poland on ...
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... ZCorrespondence concerning this article should be sent to Haifa University, School of Education,Haifa, Israel, 31999. 1149 JournalofAppliedSocial Psychology, 1988,18, 13, pp. ... The scores for MJI and AMR were given in a form of... more
... ZCorrespondence concerning this article should be sent to Haifa University, School of Education,Haifa, Israel, 31999. 1149 JournalofAppliedSocial Psychology, 1988,18, 13, pp. ... The scores for MJI and AMR were given in a form of moral maturity scores as well as global scores. ...
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The relationships between life satisfaction and the severity of the injuries were examined using interview data collected in a follow-up study of soldiers who received penetrating head wounds during the war in Lebanon in 1982-1985. Mean... more
The relationships between life satisfaction and the severity of the injuries were examined using interview data collected in a follow-up study of soldiers who received penetrating head wounds during the war in Lebanon in 1982-1985. Mean reported life satisfaction in the past was higher than that noted immediately after injury, following rehabilitation or for the future, while the lowest levels