Takeshi Sato

This study investigates the effectiveness of an Artificial Intelligence (AI) speaker as a device used for interactions in a foreign language (L2), and a tracking eye installed on the speaker to reduce L2 anxiety. L2 anxiety is an urgent issue since the anxiety derived from a fear of being judged, being negatively evaluated, or being rejected by others is hindering active L2 use. Our study hypothesizes that the question-response functions of the AI speakers would encourage L2 learners to input and output a considerable amount of L2 without the feeling of anxiety toward the speakers. We then asked eight Japanese undergraduates to conduct daily L2 interactions with the speakers in their homes for one month. The findings from pre-and post-listening tests, questionnaire surveys, and interviews revealed that intelligence speakers-Google Home (GH)-could enhance the learners' L2 motivations, gave them positive impressions, and helped eradicate their anxiety toward L2 interactions.

　　The aim of this study is to examine the advantages of mobile-assisted language learning, specifically vocabulary learning, of English as a foreign language (EFL) in terms of automatization and learner autonomy. 　　A previous study (Sato et al. 2013) revealed that using mobile devices to learn second-language (L2) vocabulary can enhance the automatization of vocabulary recall, which can save on cognitive resources, allowing them to be reapplied toward reading activity and thus successful L2 reading comprehension. 　　Those findings supported the assertion of the efficacy of L2 learning using multimedia functions, like many other previous studies that argue that the convergence of technologies in learning resources will improve L2 learners’ performance (e.g., Chun and Plass 1996, Lomicka 1998, Al-Seghayer 2001, Yeh and Wang 2004, Sato and Suzuki 2010). Along with the findings in computer-assisted language learning, studies on mobile-assisted language learning seem to focus mainly on the benefits of specific technological advances. 　　However, in order to confirm the advantages of mobile-assisted L2 learning, the agency (Pachler et al. 2010) or autonomy (Holec 1981) of learners should also be considered. Learning an L2 using a mobile device might involve carrying out tasks by receiving learning resources online and sending information such as texts or photos via one’s devices, no matter when and no matter where one may be. To carry out such activities, L2 learners are expected to be autonomous agents, not like those who passively listen to their teachers and receive the knowledge given by their teachers. Furthermore, the use of a mobile device would allow wider access to authentic L2 resources and enable learners to actively search for resources for their own learning, which can be seen as an important quality of autonomous learners who take control over learning content (Benson, 2001). 　　This study, therefore, hypothesizes that successful mobile-based L2 vocabulary learning will enhance learner autonomy, as well as the automatization of word decoding and recall speed via technologically advanced representation of knowledge. Based on this hypothesis, our study examines whether learning L2 vocabulary with mobile applications can facilitate the automatization of decoding and speed up recall of target vocabulary, and also whether L2 learners are motivated enough to function as autonomous agents using a mobile application to learn. In addition to the experimental research, questionnaire surveys and interviews were conducted before and after the implementation of the mobile vocabulary learning practice to investigate the effect of mobile- assisted language learning on learner autonomy. 　　This study suggests that research for computer- and mobile-assisted language learning be conducted from the viewpoint both of technology and of learner autonomy.

This study aims to verify the effectiveness of technologically-enhanced images on learners’ comprehension of the vocabulary in English as a foreign language (L2). It also examines the influence of individual factors in the effective use of these images, which could facilitate better sentence comprehension and production.
Our study begins by questioning the argument previous CALL research has explored, namely that multimedia glosses facilitate L2 vocabulary learning. It might be true that the combination of visual glosses and verbal glosses on the same screen, which is one of the most fundamental CALL features, brings about longer retention or better understanding of target L2 vocabulary (e.g. Chun & Plass, 1996; Sato & Suzuki 2010, 2012). These findings, however, do not support the argument that the more technologically-enhanced glosses are used, the better the outcome they bring. The use of technologically-advanced devices does not always trigger successful learning as individual factors, especially the cognitive learning style (Littlemore, 2001), may also play a role on L2 vocabulary learning.
Therefore, based on our hypothesis that an individual factor may affect the effective use of CALL materials, our study tries to find out what factors could operate the learners’ L2 sentence comprehension and production including the target vocabulary they learn with the CALL materials. With special attention to the learning styles (holistic or analytic) and the first language (Chinese and Japanese) of L2 participants, the present research is conducted to examine whether the materials of L2 vocabulary with stereoscopic visual glosses (with the use of CALL) could facilitate successful L2 sentence comprehension and production. We believe the findings of our research will serve as a catalyst to develop individually-optimized CALL materials.

This study explores the impact of multimodal knowledge representation in terms of understanding figurative senses of phrasal verbs of English as a foreign language (L2). Many previous studies have already examined the integrated presentation of verbal and visual information of the target L2 vocabulary, concluding that multimodal presentation compared with a single-mode presentation facilitates longer retention and better text comprehension and production (e.g. Lindstromberg & Boers, 2008; Sato, Lai, & Burden, 2014). These studies, however, did not discuss its advantage from the semantic aspect of the L2 vocabulary: they pay less attention to the enhancement of learners’ metaphorical competence, which is a prerequisite of competent L2 users (Littlemore, 2001). The present study, therefore, hypothesizes that multimodal representation helps L2 learners develop a more elaborate lexical network in their minds, resulting in more appropriate use of the target L2 vocabulary in various discourses, not only spoken but also academic. To examine our hypothesis, this study addresses L2 phrasal verbs (PVs), which have the most challenging features of English language (Garnier & Schmitt, 2016) in that PVs have several literal and metaphorical meanings. Developing a multimodal application to learn a group of PVs, we will examine whether L2 learners who work with the multimodal application outperform those who used a single-mode approach, in terms of text comprehension and production with the metaphorical senses of the PVs. This study will articulate the advantage of L2 learning and teaching in a multimodal environment from a different viewpoint to the previous studies.

Several types of statistical data stress that English has already become a global language, which results in the term English as Lingua Franca (ELF). For example, the number of the non-native speakers of English (NNSs) has gone way beyond that of native speakers of English (NSs), which means that more opportunities for NNSs to use English will increase with NNSs rather than with NSs. In response to this situation, some have argued about the current status of English: the ownership of English no longer belongs to NSs or new norms of ELF should be established, separated from the norms that regard NSs as models to make equal the power relation between NSs and NNSs. Apparently, this might lead to a scenario in which NNSs can use English with little stress.
However, in fact, it is not the case with the situations that many NNSs have encountered. The sociopolitical power of English between NSs and NNSs still seems to exist rather strongly even in private conversations. NNSs, therefore, still tend to lose their self-esteem in using English, which is viewed as pivotal. In using, especially speaking English, NNSs cannot be assured the situations in which they use it with their self-esteem intact; as a result, they regard themselves as having no value in the speech community that they are involved in.
To address the situation of NNSs with anxiety and stress, we use the term “marginalization.” Relevant research on this term has been carried out, especially in the contexts of the countries where English is a second language (ESL), but little research has been conducted in ELF settings.
Considering this situation, I conducted a questionnaire survey involving the NNSs who stayed in the U.K. for their academic research. The results of the questionnaire survey revealed that their feeling of marginalization might be derived from inner factors rather than external factors such as gender, age, length of study, experience to go to Anglophone countries, the status of English in their home countries, and their English language competence.
To verify the inner factors of the marginalization that NNSs encountered, this study will focus on their discourses, which can underline their thought pattern or identities toward English. Furthermore, to indicate their underlain thought pattern, we will analyse the discourses through the metaphor theory in Cognitive Linguistics, which is based on the idea that our thought is grounded in perception, body movement, and experience and is shown through metaphorical expressions in our discourses.
The aim of our study is to ascertain the marginalized NNSs’ pattern of thought toward English or of metaphorical expressions toward English by analyzing their discourses and to show the way to use and deal with ELF globally.

1. Introduction
　This study explores the implementation of mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) blended with classrooms for English as a foreign language (EFL) in Japan. Hand-held devices such as smartphones and tablets have shown potential particularly for autonomous learning. This accelerates the development of learning applications and also the permeation of MALL especially in extracurricular settings. On the other hand, the advantages of MALL more broadly include facilitating interaction among peers in an online community of practice not only from their life-worlds outside the classroom but also within the campus network infrastructure wherein learners’ own mobile devices are connected with each other. Based on the hypothesis that mobile devices could incorporate social media, blended learning, and flipped classroom approaches into the curriculum, this study addresses the practices of MALL integrated with classrooms activities in several institutional settings in Japan.

2. Literature
  MALL has been defined within e-learning and technology-assisted language learning fields due to the fact that that the convergence of technologies in learning resources will improve L2 learners’ performance (e.g. Yoshii, 2006, Sato 2016) theoretically grounded by multimedia learning theories (ex. Mayer & Sims 1994) Then a pedagogical framework from a sociocultural perspective has been also developed, emphasizing how ownership and mobility as salient characteristics of MALL (Kukulska-Hulme, 2009) can help to personalize language learning. For instance, generating target language contents (not only language but also photo, movie or sound) from learners’ life worlds and sharing them with other learners in online community of practice (Pachler, et al. 2010) can help develop the autonomy and agency required for effective learning in this era of rapid technological advances (Sharples et al., 2007).

3. Aims
　Based on the advantage of MALL in technological and sociocultural perspectives, this study reports on practical implementations of MALL in curricular programs.

4. Practices
　The first case study examines the effectiveness of blended learning and flipped classroom activities using mobile devices for the purpose of improving the English language proficiency of Japanese EFL learners including their writing, oral communication, presentation skills, and improvements in CASEC scores and OPIc Speaking test. This study was conducted over a ten-month period during two academic semesters. A total of twenty-four undergraduates were the participants of the study. The students were administered CASEC before and after the study as a measurement of their improvement as a result of their exposure to the BL and flipped classroom activities. Then questionnaire survey was also administered.

  The second case study shows the effectiveness of collaborative dialogue (Swain, 2000) as a classroom activity for EFL academic writing, conducted through an application for online communication. Sixty Japanese sophomores are randomly divided into small groups where they interact with each other for the purpose of completing their short academic essays. They could conduct the collaborative dialogue not only face to face but also in the online community of practices wherein they could bring various kinds of feedback such as comments, photos, stamps and so on. This case study was conducted to examine how the participants are influenced by their collaborative dialogue through the analysis of quantitative and qualitative data derived from their papers and their questionnaires 

  The third case study introduces the integration of iPads with faculty-made e-books for all students into the EFL curriculum, with campus-wide Wi-Fi available for students and teachers to readily access the Internet in classes. This study also reports on quantitative and qualitative feedback from students continually gathered to refine the pedagogy behind utilizing mobile devices.
　
5. Discussion
　The results of our case studies to implement the impact of MALL within classroom activities are positive. For example, the first case study reveals that various types of MALL materials and activities had a positive effect on the students’ overall English skills in terms of CASEC and OPIc scores. Additionally, the students’ listening and oral communication skills improved. The questionnaire indicates that they were satisfied with the variety of online course materials and programs and were motivated by blended learning with MALL.

　　The aim of this study is to examine the advantages of mobile-assisted language learning, specifically vocabulary learning, of English as a foreign language (EFL) in terms of automatization and learner autonomy.
　　A previous study (Sato et al. 2013) revealed that using mobile devices to learn second-language (L2) vocabulary can enhance the automatization of vocabulary recall, which can save on cognitive resources, allowing them to be reapplied toward reading activity and thus successful L2 reading comprehension. 　　Those findings supported the assertion of the efficacy of L2 learning using multimedia functions, like many other previous studies that argue that the convergence of technologies in learning resources will improve L2 learners’ performance (e.g., Chun and Plass 1996, Lomicka 1998, Al-Seghayer 2001, Yeh and Wang 2004, Sato and Suzuki 2010). Along with the findings in computer-assisted language learning, studies on mobile-assisted language learning seem to focus mainly on the benefits of specific technological advances.
　　However, in order to confirm the advantages of mobile-assisted L2 learning, the agency (Pachler et al. 2010) or autonomy (Holec 1981) of learners should also be considered. Learning an L2 using a mobile device might involve carrying out tasks by receiving learning resources online and sending information such as texts or photos via one’s devices, no matter when and no matter where one may be. To carry out such activities, L2 learners are expected to be autonomous agents, not like those who passively listen to their teachers and receive the knowledge given by their teachers. Furthermore, the use of a mobile device would allow wider access to authentic L2 resources and enable learners to actively search for resources for their own learning, which can be seen as an important quality of autonomous learners who take control over learning content (Benson, 2001).
　　This study, therefore, hypothesizes that successful mobile-based L2 vocabulary learning will enhance learner autonomy, as well as the automatization of word decoding and recall speed via technologically advanced representation of knowledge. Based on this hypothesis, our study examines whether learning L2 vocabulary with mobile applications can facilitate the automatization of decoding and speed up recall of target vocabulary, and also whether L2 learners are motivated enough to function as autonomous agents using a mobile application to learn. In addition to the experimental research, questionnaire surveys and interviews were conducted before and after the implementation of the mobile vocabulary learning practice to investigate the effect of mobile- assisted language learning on learner autonomy.
　　This study suggests that research for computer- and mobile-assisted language learning be conducted from the viewpoint both of technology and of learner autonomy.

This book explores theoretical and practical aspects of implementing mobile language learning in university classrooms for English as a Foreign Language in Japan. The technologies utilized, such as smartphones, iPads, and wi-fi, integrate students’ hand-held devices into the campus network infrastructure. The pedagogical aims of ubiquitous mobile learning further incorporate social media, blended learning, and flipped classroom approaches into the curriculum. Chapter 1 defines mobile language learning within dimensions of e-learning and technology-assisted language learning, prior to tracing the development of mobile learning in Japan. Chapter 2 documents the sociocultural theory underpinning the authors’ humanistic approach to implementation of mobile technologies. The sociocultural pedagogy represents a global consensus of leading educators that also recognizes the agency of Asian learners and brings out their capability for autonomous learning. Case studies of universities, large and small, public and private, are organized similarly in Chapters 3 to 5. Institutional/pedagogical and technological context sections are followed by detailed content on the implementation of initiatives, assessment of effectiveness, and recommendations for other institutions. Distinct from a collection of papers, this monograph tells a story in brief book length about theorizing and realizing mobile language learning, describing pioneering and original initiatives of importance to practitioners in other educational contexts.

This symposium presentation examines the impact and potential of communication technologies in learning EFL. Case studies focusing on higher education in Japan show how mobile technologies and social media could improve language acquisition in Asian EFL contexts and beyond. Teaching with sound pedagogies and communication technologies, accessed by computers and hand-held devices, can bring about better outcomes through ubiquitous language learning. Impacts can span from better language comprehension to active involvement in learning communities generated in cyberspace. This symposium will thus detail how these emerging technologies are utilized to reform EFL classroom practices. The international presenters, based at five different universities, will theoretically and practically examine factors for successful EFL learning with emerging technologies. M-learning can generate contexts for active learning with learners as agents and creators rather than spectators or recipients of knowledge. We will particularly examine a) how to implement m-learning in institutional settings, b) what makes learners willingly use mobile devices and become involved in social contexts they themselves generate, and c) how teachers can help learners with scaffolding to develop agency as individuals who voluntarily engage with the social context. Among the emerging technologies demonstrated are Social Media, such as Facebook and Twitter, media players like iPods, tablet computers like iPads, iBooks Author for interactive, illustrated, multimedia artifacts that students can also create, and blended e-learning using a content management system and smart phones for m-learning. These studies will shed light on motivational attitudes towards these technologies for language learning, and measure how these tools have impacted L2 acquisition.